diff --git a/.devcontainer/pyproject.toml b/.devcontainer/pyproject.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df0f938
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.devcontainer/pyproject.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+# Copyright 2024 TGS
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+[project]
+name = "mdio-cpp-dev"
+version = "0.1.0"
+description = "MDIO C++ library development environment"
+requires-python = ">=3.12,<3.13"
+
+# multidimio[cloud] pulls in zarr, xarray, numpy, and cloud storage backends
+dependencies = [
+    "multidimio[cloud]==1.1.4.dev1781540584",
+]
+
+[project.optional-dependencies]
+dev = [
+    "pytest>=7.0",
+    "black>=24.3",
+    "mypy>=1.5",
+    "isort>=5.0",
+    "ruff>=0.8",
+    "yapf>=0.40",
+    "cpplint==1.6.1",
+]
+
+[build-system]
+requires = ["hatchling"]
+build-backend = "hatchling.build"
+
+[dependency-groups]
+dev = [
+    "pytest>=7.0",
+    "black>=24.3",
+    "mypy>=1.5",
+    "isort>=5.0",
+    "ruff>=0.8",
+    "yapf>=0.40",
+    "cpplint==1.6.1",
+]
+
+[tool.uv]
+package = false
+prerelease = "allow"
+
+[[tool.uv.index]]
+name = "testpypi"
+url = "https://test.pypi.org/simple/"
+explicit = true
+
+[tool.uv.sources]
+multidimio = { index = "testpypi" }
+
+[tool.isort]
+profile = "black"
+
+[tool.black]
+line-length = 79
+
+[tool.ruff]
+line-length = 79
+
+[tool.ruff.lint]
+select = ["E", "F", "I", "UP"]
+
+[tool.mypy]
+python_version = "3.12"
+plugins = []
diff --git a/.devcontainer/uv.lock b/.devcontainer/uv.lock
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3aeb515
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.devcontainer/uv.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,1702 @@
+version = 1
+revision = 3
+requires-python = "==3.12.*"
+
+[options]
+prerelease-mode = "allow"
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+version = "2025.8.0"
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diff --git a/.github/workflows/cmake_build.yaml b/.github/workflows/cmake_build.yaml
index e7c65e9..27b5116 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/cmake_build.yaml
+++ b/.github/workflows/cmake_build.yaml
@@ -30,16 +30,15 @@ jobs:
           cxx-compiler: ${{ matrix.compiler }}
       - name: Build tests
         run: cd build && pwd && make -j
-      - name: Install Python 3.10
+      - name: Install UV
         run: |
-          sudo add-apt-repository -y ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
-          sudo apt update -y
-          sudo apt install -y python3.10 python3.10-venv python3.10-dev
-          sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/python3 python3 /usr/bin/python3.10 1
+          curl -LsSf https://astral.sh/uv/install.sh | sh
+          echo "$HOME/.local/bin" >> $GITHUB_PATH
       - name: Install test dependencies
         run: |
-          python3.10 -m pip install --upgrade pip setuptools wheel --no-input
-          python3.10 -m pip install yapf cpplint zarr xarray --no-input
+          uv sync --project .devcontainer --frozen
+        env:
+          UV_PROJECT_ENVIRONMENT: /usr
       - name: Run tests
         run: |
           cd build/mdio/ \
@@ -52,4 +51,8 @@ jobs:
           && ./mdio_utils_trim_test \
           && ./mdio_utils_delete_test \
           && ./mdio_variable_collection_test \
-          && ./mdio_coordinate_selector_test
\ No newline at end of file
+          && ./mdio_coordinate_selector_test \
+          && ./mdio_header_variable_test \
+          && ./mdio_zarr_test \
+          && ./mdio_gcs_test \
+          && ./mdio_s3_test
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index 82fa673..ce31c4a 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -75,6 +75,8 @@ include(CMakeDependentOption)
 # provides a method to download dependencies:
 include(FetchContent)
 include(CMakeHelpers/MdioHelpers)
+# optional code coverage support:
+include(CodeCoverage)
 
 list(APPEND mdio_DEFAULT_COPTS
     "-Wno-deprecated-declarations"
@@ -108,6 +110,7 @@ if(NOT CMAKE_SOURCE_DIR STREQUAL CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR)
   set(mdio_INTERNAL_DEPS
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
diff --git a/cmake/CMakeHelpers/MdioHelpers.cmake b/cmake/CMakeHelpers/MdioHelpers.cmake
index c2162d7..e51b49f 100644
--- a/cmake/CMakeHelpers/MdioHelpers.cmake
+++ b/cmake/CMakeHelpers/MdioHelpers.cmake
@@ -297,6 +297,12 @@ function(mdio_cc_test)
     PRIVATE ${mdio_CC_TEST_COPTS}
   )
 
+  # Add coverage flags only to mdio test targets (not dependencies)
+  if(MDIO_ENABLE_COVERAGE)
+    target_compile_options(${_NAME} PRIVATE ${MDIO_COVERAGE_COMPILE_FLAGS})
+    target_link_options(${_NAME} PRIVATE ${MDIO_COVERAGE_LINK_FLAGS})
+  endif()
+
   target_link_libraries(${_NAME}
     PUBLIC ${mdio_CC_TEST_DEPS}
     PRIVATE ${mdio_CC_TEST_LINKOPTS}
diff --git a/cmake/CodeCoverage.cmake b/cmake/CodeCoverage.cmake
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..120da7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cmake/CodeCoverage.cmake
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+# Copyright 2024 TGS
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+# ==============================================================================
+# Code Coverage Support (gcov + lcov)
+# ==============================================================================
+#
+# Coverage instrumentation is applied ONLY to mdio test targets, not to
+# dependencies like Tensorstore. This keeps build times and test execution fast.
+#
+# REQUIRED CMAKE FLAGS:
+#   -DMDIO_ENABLE_COVERAGE=ON    Enable coverage instrumentation
+#   -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=Debug     Recommended for meaningful line coverage
+#
+# REQUIRED SYSTEM TOOLS:
+#   - gcov   (usually bundled with GCC)
+#   - lcov   (install via: apt install lcov / brew install lcov)
+#   - genhtml (included with lcov)
+#
+# USAGE:
+#   1. Configure and build with coverage enabled:
+#        cd build
+#        cmake .. -DMDIO_ENABLE_COVERAGE=ON -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=Debug
+#        make
+#
+#   2. Run tests to generate coverage data (coverage accumulates across runs):
+#        ./mdio/mdio_variable_test                              # single test
+#        ./mdio/mdio_variable_test && ./mdio/mdio_dataset_test  # multiple tests
+#        ctest                                                  # all registered tests
+#
+#   3. Generate HTML coverage report:
+#        make coverage-capture
+#
+#   4. View the report:
+#        Open build/coverage_report/index.html in a browser
+#
+# AVAILABLE TARGETS:
+#   make coverage         - Reset counters, capture data, generate report
+#   make coverage-capture - Capture current data and generate report (no reset)
+#   make coverage-reset   - Zero out all coverage counters
+#
+# ==============================================================================
+
+option(MDIO_ENABLE_COVERAGE "Enable code coverage instrumentation (requires GCC or Clang)" OFF)
+
+if(MDIO_ENABLE_COVERAGE)
+  message(STATUS "Code coverage enabled")
+
+  # Check for supported compiler
+  if(NOT CMAKE_CXX_COMPILER_ID MATCHES "GNU|Clang")
+    message(FATAL_ERROR "Code coverage requires GCC or Clang compiler")
+  endif()
+
+  # Coverage compiler/linker flags - exported for use in MdioHelpers.cmake
+  # These are applied only to mdio targets, not to dependencies like Tensorstore
+  set(MDIO_COVERAGE_COMPILE_FLAGS "-fprofile-arcs;-ftest-coverage" CACHE INTERNAL "Coverage compile flags")
+  set(MDIO_COVERAGE_LINK_FLAGS "--coverage" CACHE INTERNAL "Coverage link flags")
+
+  # Find required tools
+  find_program(LCOV_PATH lcov)
+  find_program(GENHTML_PATH genhtml)
+
+  if(NOT LCOV_PATH)
+    message(WARNING "lcov not found - coverage report generation will not be available")
+  endif()
+
+  if(NOT GENHTML_PATH)
+    message(WARNING "genhtml not found - coverage report generation will not be available")
+  endif()
+
+  # Create coverage report target if tools are available
+  if(LCOV_PATH AND GENHTML_PATH)
+    # Custom target to generate coverage report
+    add_custom_target(coverage
+      COMMENT "Generating code coverage report..."
+
+      # Clear previous coverage data
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH} --directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR} --zerocounters
+
+      # Run all tests (ctest must be run separately or you can uncomment below)
+      # COMMAND ${CMAKE_CTEST_COMMAND} --output-on-failure
+
+      # Capture coverage data
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH} 
+        --directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}
+        --capture
+        --output-file ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --ignore-errors mismatch,negative
+
+      # Remove coverage data for external dependencies
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH}
+        --remove ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        '/usr/*'
+        '${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/_deps/*'
+        '*/googletest/*'
+        '*/gtest/*'
+        '*/gmock/*'
+        '*_test.cc'
+        --output-file ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --ignore-errors unused,negative
+
+      # Generate HTML report
+      COMMAND ${GENHTML_PATH}
+        ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --output-directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage_report
+        --title "MDIO Code Coverage"
+        --legend
+        --show-details
+
+      WORKING_DIRECTORY ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}
+    )
+
+    # Target to just capture coverage (without zeroing first)
+    add_custom_target(coverage-capture
+      COMMENT "Capturing coverage data..."
+
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH} 
+        --directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}
+        --capture
+        --output-file ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --ignore-errors mismatch,negative
+
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH}
+        --remove ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        '/usr/*'
+        '${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/_deps/*'
+        '*/googletest/*'
+        '*/gtest/*'
+        '*/gmock/*'
+        '*_test.cc'
+        --output-file ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --ignore-errors unused,negative
+
+      COMMAND ${GENHTML_PATH}
+        ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage.info
+        --output-directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage_report
+        --title "MDIO Code Coverage"
+        --legend
+        --show-details
+
+      WORKING_DIRECTORY ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}
+    )
+
+    # Target to reset coverage counters
+    add_custom_target(coverage-reset
+      COMMENT "Resetting coverage counters..."
+      COMMAND ${LCOV_PATH} --directory ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR} --zerocounters
+      WORKING_DIRECTORY ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}
+    )
+
+    message(STATUS "Coverage targets available: 'coverage', 'coverage-capture', 'coverage-reset'")
+    message(STATUS "Coverage report will be generated at: ${CMAKE_BINARY_DIR}/coverage_report/index.html")
+  endif()
+endif()
+
diff --git a/cmake/FindEXT_TENSORSTORE.cmake b/cmake/FindEXT_TENSORSTORE.cmake
index 250f4fc..355a475 100644
--- a/cmake/FindEXT_TENSORSTORE.cmake
+++ b/cmake/FindEXT_TENSORSTORE.cmake
@@ -3,11 +3,11 @@ IF ( NOT TARGET tensorstore )
 
  include(FetchContent)
 
- FetchContent_Declare(
-  tensorstore
-  GIT_REPOSITORY
-  https://github.com/brian-michell/tensorstore.git
-  GIT_TAG v0.1.63_latest
+FetchContent_Declare(
+ tensorstore
+ GIT_REPOSITORY
+ https://github.com/google/tensorstore.git
+ GIT_TAG 917edaf341217f750b7bd3b8db6e75e6db64eab8
 )
 
 FetchContent_MakeAvailable(tensorstore)
diff --git a/cmake/Findnlohmann_json_schema_validator.cmake b/cmake/Findnlohmann_json_schema_validator.cmake
index 6e82872..141d61e 100644
--- a/cmake/Findnlohmann_json_schema_validator.cmake
+++ b/cmake/Findnlohmann_json_schema_validator.cmake
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ if (NOT TARGET nlohmann_json_schema_validator)
   FetchContent_Declare(
     nlohmann_json_schema_validator
     GIT_REPOSITORY https://github.com/pboettch/json-schema-validator.git
-    GIT_TAG 2.2.0
+    GIT_TAG 2.4.0
   )
 
   if(NOT BUILD_VALIDATOR)
diff --git a/examples/dataset_example/src/dataset_example.cc b/examples/dataset_example/src/dataset_example.cc
index 460b351..e7dc726 100644
--- a/examples/dataset_example/src/dataset_example.cc
+++ b/examples/dataset_example/src/dataset_example.cc
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   /// handled by returning a "Result" object; the result can be tested for
   /// "ok()", there is also a convenient Tensorstore macro for doing assigment
   /// while handling errors.
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto dataset, dataset_result)
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto dataset, dataset_result);
 
   /// The dataset represent data on disk, the object holds only minimal state.
   /// Its memory footprint is small.
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   mdio::SliceDescriptor desc1 = {"inline", 20, 120, 1};
   mdio::SliceDescriptor desc2 = {"crossline", 100, 200, 1};
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto slice, dataset.isel(desc1, desc2))
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto slice, dataset.isel(desc1, desc2));
   /// The slice represents a subset of the MDIO data on disk, I/O operations can
   /// be made using the variables contained in this slice.
   std::cout << slice << "\n\n" << std::endl;
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   /// describing data, this means that the datatype is discovered at runtime.
   /// Here we request a Variable given we know its dtype of unit32:
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variableObject,
-                        slice.variables.get<uint32_t>("inline"))
+                        slice.variables.get<uint32_t>("inline"));
   /// The Variable object contains a collection of metadata associated with the
   /// seismic, including names, and units.
   std::cout << variableObject << std::endl;
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   // MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
   //   auto data, tensorstore::Read(variableObject.get_store()).result()
   // )
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto data, variableObject.Read().result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto data, variableObject.Read().result());
   auto d1 = data.get_data_accessor();
   /// The read returns a SharedArray, which we can addrss like and array, in 3-d
   /// we might do something like this data({0, 0, 0}), here the inline label is
@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   /// Optionally, the variable can handle the I/O. In this scenario data can be
   /// read into a VariableData object that retains it's dimension names and
   /// other metadata.
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variableData, variableObject.Read().result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variableData, variableObject.Read().result());
 
   /// The accessor method provides access to an underlying tensorstore
   /// SharedArray.
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   auto existing_dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen).result();
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(dataset, existing_dataset)
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(dataset, existing_dataset);
 
   /// In the previous scenario used a slice to operate over the range of data
   /// [20, 120), this dataset is defined over the entire range, so we should see
@@ -196,14 +196,14 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   /// to uint32_t (in this case), then the get method will return a result that
   /// is not OK.
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(variableObject,
-                        dataset.variables.get<uint32_t>("inline"))
+                        dataset.variables.get<uint32_t>("inline"));
   inclusive_min =
       variableObject.get_store().domain()[0].interval().inclusive_min();
   exclusive_max =
       variableObject.get_store().domain()[0].interval().exclusive_max();
 
   /// Here we read all of the variable from disk into memory
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(variableData, variableObject.Read().result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(variableData, variableObject.Read().result());
   tick_labels = variableData.get_data_accessor();
   for (Index i = inclusive_min; i < exclusive_max; i += 20) {
     std::cout << "dataset domain, " << variableData.variableName
@@ -219,10 +219,10 @@ absl::Status Run() {
     }
     MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
         /// in this example, all the dims labels are unint32
-        variableObject, dataset.variables.get<uint32_t>(label))
+        variableObject, dataset.variables.get<uint32_t>(label));
 
     /// Suppose we want to read existing values ...
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(variableData, variableObject.Read().result())
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(variableData, variableObject.Read().result());
 
     inclusive_min =
         variableObject.get_store().domain()[0].interval().inclusive_min();
@@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ absl::Status Run() {
   /// For the purposes of information hiding, you can also extract a single
   /// variable and its coordinates, with the other metadata. This acts like a
   /// regular Dataset, but has only a single variable.
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto inline_labels, dataset["cdp-x"])
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto inline_labels, dataset["cdp-x"]);
 
   return absl::OkStatus();
 }
diff --git a/examples/real_data_example/src/real_data_example.cc b/examples/real_data_example/src/real_data_example.cc
index d144f50..85196f9 100644
--- a/examples/real_data_example/src/real_data_example.cc
+++ b/examples/real_data_example/src/real_data_example.cc
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ absl::Status Run(const Descriptors... descriptors) {
       auto dataset,
       mdio::Dataset::Open(std::string(absl::GetFlag(FLAGS_dataset_path)),
                           mdio::constants::kOpen)
-          .result())
+          .result());
 
   if (absl::GetFlag(FLAGS_print_dataset)) {
     std::cout << dataset << std::endl;
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ absl::Status Run(const Descriptors... descriptors) {
     return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Seismic data must be 3D");
   }
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto seismic_data, ReadWithProgress(variable).result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto seismic_data, ReadWithProgress(variable).result());
 
   auto seismic_accessor = seismic_data.get_data_accessor();
 
diff --git a/examples/xarray_integration/src/mdio_from_xarray.cc b/examples/xarray_integration/src/mdio_from_xarray.cc
index cdcba54..b818459 100644
--- a/examples/xarray_integration/src/mdio_from_xarray.cc
+++ b/examples/xarray_integration/src/mdio_from_xarray.cc
@@ -27,12 +27,12 @@
 absl::Status Run(std::string dataset_path) {
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
       auto dataset,
-      mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen).result())
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen).result());
 
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable,
-                        dataset.variables.get<float32_t>("image"))
+                        dataset.variables.get<float32_t>("image"));
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable_data, variable.Read().result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable_data, variable.Read().result());
 
   auto image = variable_data.get_data_accessor();
 
diff --git a/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.cc b/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.cc
index 8e8f509..2daeffa 100644
--- a/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.cc
+++ b/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.cc
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ absl::Status Run(std::string dataset_path) {
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto dataset,
                         mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_spec, dataset_path,
                                                  mdio::constants::kCreateClean)
-                            .result())
+                            .result());
 
   auto populate_inline = [](SharedArray<uint32_t>& data) {
     for (auto i = data.domain()[0].inclusive_min();
diff --git a/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.h b/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.h
index 70a72fe..7793b1e 100644
--- a/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.h
+++ b/examples/xarray_integration/src/xarray_integration.h
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ using SharedArray = mdio::SharedArray<T, R, OriginKind>;
 template <typename T = void>
 mdio::Result<mdio::VariableData<T>> from_dataset(
     const mdio::Dataset& dataset, const std::string& variable_name) {
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable, dataset.variables.get<T>(variable_name))
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable, dataset.variables.get<T>(variable_name));
 
   return mdio::from_variable<T>(variable);
 }
diff --git a/mdio/CMakeLists.txt b/mdio/CMakeLists.txt
index 47fc89f..208a929 100644
--- a/mdio/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/mdio/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -54,6 +54,15 @@ endif()
 if (TARGET nlohmann_json_json)
   install(TARGETS nlohmann_json_json EXPORT mdioTargets)
 endif()
+# Tensorstore's bazel_to_cmake (post-bzlmod rename) exposes nlohmann_json as
+# `nlohmann_json_nlohmann_json` plus a companion `.alwayslink` static lib that
+# the INTERFACE target links against. Both must be in the export set.
+if (TARGET nlohmann_json_nlohmann_json)
+  install(TARGETS nlohmann_json_nlohmann_json EXPORT mdioTargets)
+endif()
+if (TARGET nlohmann_json_nlohmann_json.alwayslink)
+  install(TARGETS nlohmann_json_nlohmann_json.alwayslink EXPORT mdioTargets)
+endif()
 
 # Export the targets to be used with FetchContent
 export(EXPORT mdioTargets FILE "${CMAKE_CURRENT_BINARY_DIR}/mdioTargets.cmake" NAMESPACE mdio::)
@@ -101,6 +110,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -125,6 +135,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -134,6 +145,8 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     tensorstore::util_status_testutil
     nlohmann_json_schema_validator
     tensorstore::kvstore_s3
+    absl::log_initialize
+    absl::log_globals
 )
 
 mdio_cc_test(
@@ -186,6 +199,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
   GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -209,6 +223,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -232,6 +247,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::tensorstore
@@ -255,6 +271,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -277,6 +294,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -301,6 +319,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::stack
@@ -321,14 +340,55 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     ${mdio_DEFAULT_COPTS} 
   LINKOPTS
     ${mdio_DEFAULT_LINKOPTS}
+  DEPS
+    GTest::gmock_main
+    tensorstore::driver_json
+    tensorstore::tensorstore
+    nlohmann_json_schema_validator
+)
+
+mdio_cc_test(
+  NAME
+    coordinate_selector_test
+  SRCS
+    coordinate_selector_test.cc
+  COPTS
+    ${mdio_DEFAULT_COPTS} 
+  LINKOPTS
+    ${mdio_DEFAULT_LINKOPTS}
   DEPS
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
+    tensorstore::tensorstore
     tensorstore::stack
+    tensorstore::index_space_dim_expression
+    tensorstore::index_space_index_transform
+    tensorstore::util_status_testutil
+    nlohmann_json_schema_validator
+)
+
+mdio_cc_test(
+  NAME
+    header_variable_test
+  SRCS
+    header_variable_test.cc
+  COPTS
+    ${mdio_DEFAULT_COPTS}
+  LINKOPTS
+    ${mdio_DEFAULT_LINKOPTS}
+  DEPS
+    GTest::gmock_main
+    tensorstore::driver_array
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
+    tensorstore::driver_json
+    tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::tensorstore
+    tensorstore::stack
     tensorstore::index_space_dim_expression
     tensorstore::index_space_index_transform
     tensorstore::util_status_testutil
@@ -337,9 +397,9 @@ mdio_cc_test(
 
 mdio_cc_test(
   NAME
-    coordinate_selector_test
+    zarr_test
   SRCS
-    coordinate_selector_test.cc
+    zarr/zarr_test.cc
   COPTS
     ${mdio_DEFAULT_COPTS} 
   LINKOPTS
@@ -348,6 +408,7 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     GTest::gmock_main
     tensorstore::driver_array
     tensorstore::driver_zarr
+    tensorstore::driver_zarr3
     tensorstore::driver_json
     tensorstore::kvstore_file
     tensorstore::tensorstore
@@ -357,3 +418,4 @@ mdio_cc_test(
     tensorstore::util_status_testutil
     nlohmann_json_schema_validator
 )
+
diff --git a/mdio/acceptance_test.cc b/mdio/acceptance_test.cc
index c464291..2510165 100644
--- a/mdio/acceptance_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/acceptance_test.cc
@@ -12,6 +12,15 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
+/**
+ * @file acceptance_test.cc
+ * @brief Unified acceptance tests for both Zarr V2 and V3 driver support.
+ *
+ * This file contains parameterized tests that verify the MDIO library works
+ * correctly with both Zarr V2 and Zarr V3 formats, including variable creation,
+ * reading, writing, and dataset operations.
+ */
+
 #include <gmock/gmock.h>
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 #include <sys/wait.h>
@@ -19,41 +28,336 @@
 
 #include <cstdlib>
 #include <filesystem>
+#include <sstream>
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
 
 #include "mdio/dataset.h"
 #include "mdio/dataset_factory.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 
 namespace {
 
-constexpr char PYTHON_EXECUTABLE[] = "python3";  // Don't specify absolute path
+constexpr char PYTHON_EXECUTABLE[] = "python3";
 constexpr char PROJECT_BASE_PATH_ENV[] = "PROJECT_BASE_PATH";
 constexpr char DEFAULT_BASE_PATH[] = "../..";
-constexpr char ZARR_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH[] =
-    "/mdio/regression_tests/zarr_compatibility.py";
 constexpr char XARRAY_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH[] =
     "/mdio/regression_tests/xarray_compatibility_test.py";
-constexpr char FILE_PATH_BASE[] = "./zarrs/acceptance/";
+constexpr char MULTIDIMIO_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH[] =
+    "/mdio/regression_tests/multidimio_compatibility_test.py";
 constexpr int ERROR_CODE = EXIT_FAILURE;
 constexpr int SUCCESS_CODE = EXIT_SUCCESS;
 
+using float16_t = mdio::dtypes::float_16_t;
+
+/**
+ * @brief Test variable definition with dtype info for V2 and V3.
+ */
+struct TestVariableDef {
+  std::string name;
+  std::string dtype_v2;
+  std::string dtype_v3;
+  std::string long_name;
+  mdio::DataType expected_dtype;
+};
+
+// Common test variable definitions used across multiple tests
+const std::vector<TestVariableDef> kTestVariables = {
+    {"i2", "<i2", "int16", "2-byte integer test", mdio::constants::kInt16},
+    {"i4", "<i4", "int32", "4-byte integer test", mdio::constants::kInt32},
+    {"i8", "<i8", "int64", "8-byte integer test", mdio::constants::kInt64},
+    {"f2", "<f2", "float16", "2-byte float test", mdio::constants::kFloat16},
+    {"f4", "<f4", "float32", "4-byte float test", mdio::constants::kFloat32},
+    {"f8", "<f8", "float64", "8-byte float test", mdio::constants::kFloat64},
+    {"u1", "<u1", "uint8", "1-byte unsigned integer test",
+     mdio::constants::kUint8},
+    {"u2", "<u2", "uint16", "2-byte unsigned integer test",
+     mdio::constants::kUint16},
+    {"u8", "<u8", "uint64", "8-byte unsigned integer test",
+     mdio::constants::kUint64},
+    {"b1", "|b1", "bool", "boolean test", mdio::constants::kBool},
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ * Note: Does NOT include trailing slash.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarrs/acceptance_v3"
+                                                 : "zarrs/acceptance";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the TensorStore driver name for the given version.
+ */
+std::string GetTestDriverName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarr3" : "zarr";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a typed variable spec based on version and dtype.
+ */
+nlohmann::json CreateTypedVariableSpec(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version,
+                                       const std::string& name,
+                                       const std::string& base_path,
+                                       const std::string& dtype_v2,
+                                       const std::string& dtype_v3,
+                                       const std::string& long_name) {
+  nlohmann::json spec;
+  spec["driver"] = GetTestDriverName(version);
+  spec["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  spec["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path + "/" + name;
+
+  if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+    spec["metadata"]["data_type"] = dtype_v3;
+    spec["metadata"]["shape"] = nlohmann::json::array({10, 10});
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["name"] = "regular";
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["configuration"]["chunk_shape"] =
+        nlohmann::json::array({5, 5});
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_key_encoding"]["name"] = "default";
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_key_encoding"]["configuration"]["separator"] = "/";
+    nlohmann::json bytes_codec;
+    bytes_codec["name"] = "bytes";
+    spec["metadata"]["codecs"] = nlohmann::json::array({bytes_codec});
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["foo"] = "bar";
+    spec["attributes"]["long_name"] = long_name;
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_names"] =
+        nlohmann::json::array({"inline", "crossline"});
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_units"] = nlohmann::json::array({"m", "m"});
+  } else {
+    spec["metadata"]["dtype"] = dtype_v2;
+    spec["metadata"]["shape"] = nlohmann::json::array({10, 10});
+    spec["metadata"]["chunks"] = nlohmann::json::array({5, 5});
+    spec["metadata"]["dimension_separator"] = "/";
+    spec["metadata"]["compressor"]["id"] = "blosc";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["foo"] = "bar";
+    spec["attributes"]["long_name"] = long_name;
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_names"] =
+        nlohmann::json::array({"inline", "crossline"});
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_units"] = nlohmann::json::array({"m", "m"});
+  }
+
+  return spec;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a base spec (for opening) based on version.
+ */
+nlohmann::json CreateBaseSpec(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version,
+                              const std::string& name,
+                              const std::string& base_path) {
+  nlohmann::json spec;
+  spec["driver"] = GetTestDriverName(version);
+  spec["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  spec["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path + "/" + name;
+  return spec;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates and asserts a test variable from a definition.
+ */
+void CreateTestVariable(const TestVariableDef& def,
+                        mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version,
+                        const std::string& base_path) {
+  mdio::TransactionalOpenOptions options;
+  auto opt = options.Set(std::move(mdio::constants::kCreateClean));
+
+  auto spec = CreateTypedVariableSpec(
+      version, def.name, base_path, def.dtype_v2, def.dtype_v3, def.long_name);
+  auto schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(spec).value();
+  auto [store, metadata] = schema;
+  auto var =
+      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(store, metadata, std::move(options));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok())
+      << "Failed to create " << def.name << ": " << var.status();
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Opens a variable by name and returns its Future.
+ */
+mdio::Future<mdio::Variable<>> OpenTestVariable(const std::string& name,
+                                                mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version,
+                                                const std::string& base_path) {
+  return mdio::Variable<>::Open(CreateBaseSpec(version, name, base_path),
+                                mdio::constants::kOpen);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the Python script base path from environment.
+ */
+const char* GetPythonBasePath() {
+  const char* basePath = std::getenv(PROJECT_BASE_PATH_ENV);
+  if (!basePath) {
+    std::cout << "PROJECT_BASE_PATH environment variable not set. Expecting to "
+                 "be in the 'build/mdio' directory."
+              << std::endl;
+    basePath = DEFAULT_BASE_PATH;
+  }
+  return basePath;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the dataset manifest JSON for the given version.
+ * Both versions use the same manifest structure including struct arrays.
+ */
+std::string GetDatasetManifest(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  std::string name =
+      version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "campos_3d_v3" : "campos_3d";
+
+  // clang-format off
+  std::string manifest = R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": ")" + name + R"(",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+    "attributes": {
+      "textHeader": [
+        "C01 .......................... ",
+        "C02 .......................... ",
+        "C03 .......................... "
+      ],
+      "foo": "bar"
+    }
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "image",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+        {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        },
+        "statsV1": {
+          "count": 100,
+          "sum": 1215.1,
+          "sumSquares": 125.12,
+          "min": 5.61,
+          "max": 10.84,
+          "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
+        },
+        "attributes": {
+          "fizz": "buzz"
+        }
+    },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "velocity",
+      "dataType": "float64",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        },
+        "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "image_inline",
+      "dataType": "int16",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "image_headers",
+      "dataType": {
+        "fields": [
+          {"name": "cdp-x", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "cdp-y", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "elevation", "format": "float16"},
+          {"name": "some_scalar", "format": "float16"}
+        ]
+      },
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline"],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "inline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "crossline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "depth",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-x",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-y",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    }
+  ]
+}
+    )";
+  // clang-format on
+  return manifest;
+}
+
 /**
  * @brief Executes the Python regression tests
- *
- * @param scriptPath Which script to run, should be either
- * ZARR_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH or XARRAY_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH
- * @param arg The argument to pass to the script
- * @return int The status code of the script execution
  */
 int executePythonScript(const std::string& scriptPath,
                         const std::vector<std::string>& args) {
-  // Ensure scriptPath and args are sanitized
   if (scriptPath.empty() || args.empty()) {
     std::cerr << "Error: scriptPath or args are empty." << std::endl;
     return ERROR_CODE;
   }
 
-  // Ensure the scriptPath is an absolute path or default base path
   if (scriptPath[0] != '/' && scriptPath.find(DEFAULT_BASE_PATH) != 0) {
     std::cerr
         << "Error: PROJECT_BASE_PATH must be an absolute path or not be set."
@@ -61,1018 +365,279 @@ int executePythonScript(const std::string& scriptPath,
     return ERROR_CODE;
   }
 
-  // Prepare arguments for execvp
   std::vector<const char*> execArgs = {PYTHON_EXECUTABLE, scriptPath.c_str()};
   for (const auto& arg : args) {
     execArgs.push_back(arg.c_str());
   }
   execArgs.push_back(nullptr);
 
-  // Execute the Python script
   if (execvp(execArgs[0], const_cast<char* const*>(execArgs.data())) == -1) {
     perror("execvp failed");
     return ERROR_CODE;
   }
 
-  return SUCCESS_CODE;  // This line will never be reached if execvp is
-                        // successful
+  return SUCCESS_CODE;
 }
 
-namespace VariableTesting {
-
-using float16_t = mdio::dtypes::float_16_t;
-
-// TODO(BrianMichell): Extend test coverage to include uint
-nlohmann::json i2Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i2"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
-
-nlohmann::json i4Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i4"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
-
-nlohmann::json i8Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i8"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
-
-nlohmann::json f2Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f2"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
+/**
+ * @brief Runs Python scripts with fork/wait and checks results.
+ * @return true if all scripts passed, false otherwise.
+ */
+bool RunPythonScripts(const std::string& script_path,
+                      const std::vector<std::vector<std::string>>& arg_sets,
+                      const std::string& skip_message) {
+  std::vector<pid_t> pids;
 
-nlohmann::json f4Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f4"
-        }
+  for (const auto& args : arg_sets) {
+    pid_t pid = fork();
+    if (pid == 0) {
+      int result = executePythonScript(script_path, args);
+      if (result == 0xfd00) {
+        exit(SUCCESS_CODE);
+      }
+      exit(result);
+    } else if (pid > 0) {
+      pids.push_back(pid);
+    } else {
+      perror("fork failed");
+      return false;
     }
-)"_json;
+  }
 
-nlohmann::json f8Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f8"
-        }
+  bool all_passed = true;
+  for (pid_t pid : pids) {
+    int status;
+    if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) == -1) {
+      perror("waitpid failed");
+      return false;
     }
-)"_json;
-
-nlohmann::json voidedBase = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/voided"
-        }
+    if (!WIFEXITED(status) || WEXITSTATUS(status) != 0) {
+      if (WIFEXITED(status) && WEXITSTATUS(status) == 0xfd00) {
+        // Import error - will be handled by caller
+        continue;
+      }
+      all_passed = false;
     }
-)"_json;
+  }
+  return all_passed;
+}
 
-nlohmann::json u2Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/u2"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Variable Tests
+// ============================================================================
 
-nlohmann::json u4Base = R"(
-    {
-        "driver": "zarr",
-        "kvstore": {
-            "driver": "file",
-            "path": "zarrs/acceptance/u4"
-        }
-    }
-)"_json;
+class VariableTest : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    driver_ = GetTestDriverName(version_);
+  }
 
-// Test to set up some pre-existing elements for testing
-TEST(Variable, SETUP) {
-  mdio::TransactionalOpenOptions options;
-  auto opt = options.Set(std::move(mdio::constants::kCreateClean));
-  nlohmann::json i2Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i2"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<i2",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "2-byte integer test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto i2Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(i2Spec).value();
-  auto [i2Store, i2Metadata] = i2Schema;
-  auto i2 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(i2Store, i2Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+  std::string driver_;
+};
 
-  nlohmann::json i4Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i4"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<i4",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "4-byte integer test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto i4Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(i4Spec).value();
-  auto [i4Store, i4Metadata] = i4Schema;
-  auto i4 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(i4Store, i4Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-
-  nlohmann::json i8Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i8"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<i8",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "8-byte integer test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto i8Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(i8Spec).value();
-  auto [i8Store, i8Metadata] = i8Schema;
-  auto i8 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(i8Store, i8Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-
-  nlohmann::json f2Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f2"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<f2",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "2-byte float test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto f2Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(f2Spec).value();
-  auto [f2Store, f2Metadata] = f2Schema;
-  auto f2 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(f2Store, f2Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-
-  nlohmann::json f4Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f4"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<f4",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "4-byte float test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto f4Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(f4Spec).value();
-  auto [f4Store, f4Metadata] = f4Schema;
-  auto f4 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(f4Store, f4Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
+TEST_P(VariableTest, SETUP) {
+  std::filesystem::create_directories(base_path_);
 
-  nlohmann::json f8Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/f8"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<f8",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "long_name": "8-byte float test",
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto f8Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(f8Spec).value();
-  auto [f8Store, f8Metadata] = f8Schema;
-  auto f8 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(f8Store, f8Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-
-  nlohmann::json voidedSpec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/voided"
-            },
-            "field": "integer16",
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": [["integer16", "<i2"], ["float32", "<f4"], ["double", "<f8"]],
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "struct array test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto voidedSchema =
-      mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(voidedSpec).value();
-  auto [voidedStore, voidedMetadata] = voidedSchema;
-  auto voided = mdio::internal::CreateVariable(voidedStore, voidedMetadata,
-                                               std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    CreateTestVariable(def, version_, base_path_);
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, open) {
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
-  EXPECT_TRUE(
-      mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen).status().ok());
+TEST_P(VariableTest, open) {
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    auto var = OpenTestVariable(def.name, version_, base_path_);
+    EXPECT_TRUE(var.status().ok())
+        << "Failed to open " << def.name << ": " << var.status();
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, name) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().get_variable_name(), "i2")
-      << i2.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().get_variable_name(), "i4")
-      << i4.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().get_variable_name(), "i8")
-      << i8.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().get_variable_name(), "f2")
-      << f2.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().get_variable_name(), "f4")
-      << f4.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().get_variable_name(), "f8")
-      << f8.value().get_variable_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().get_variable_name(), "voided")
-      << voided.value().get_variable_name();
+TEST_P(VariableTest, name) {
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    auto var = OpenTestVariable(def.name, version_, base_path_);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok()) << var.status();
+    EXPECT_EQ(var.value().get_variable_name(), def.name);
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, longName) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().get_long_name(), "2-byte integer test")
-      << i2.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().get_long_name(), "4-byte integer test")
-      << i4.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().get_long_name(), "8-byte integer test")
-      << i8.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().get_long_name(), "2-byte float test")
-      << f2.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().get_long_name(), "4-byte float test")
-      << f4.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().get_long_name(), "8-byte float test")
-      << f8.value().get_long_name();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().get_long_name(), "struct array test")
-      << voided.value().get_long_name();
+TEST_P(VariableTest, longName) {
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    auto var = OpenTestVariable(def.name, version_, base_path_);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok()) << var.status();
+    EXPECT_EQ(var.value().get_long_name(), def.long_name);
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, optionalAttrs) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, optionalAttrs) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << i2.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << i4.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << i8.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << f2.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << f4.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << f8.value().GetAttributes();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << voided.value().GetAttributes();
+  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["foo"], "bar");
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, namedDimensions) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, namedDimensions) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << i2.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << i4.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << i8.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << f2.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << f4.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << f8.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << voided.value().getMetadata();
+  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().getMetadata()["dimension_names"].size(), 2);
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, sliceByDimIdx) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, sliceByDimIdx) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
+  auto f4 = OpenTestVariable("f4", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
   ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
 
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> zeroIdxSlice = {0, 0, 5, 1};
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> oneIdxSlice = {1, 0, 5, 1};
 
   auto i2Slice = i2.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
-  auto i4Slice = i4.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
-  auto i8Slice = i8.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
-  auto f2Slice = f2.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
   auto f4Slice = f4.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
-  auto f8Slice = f8.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
-  auto voidedSlice = voided.value().slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
 
   EXPECT_TRUE(i2Slice.status().ok()) << i2Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i4Slice.status().ok()) << i4Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i8Slice.status().ok()) << i8Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f2Slice.status().ok()) << f2Slice.status();
   EXPECT_TRUE(f4Slice.status().ok()) << f4Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f8Slice.status().ok()) << f8Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(voidedSlice.status().ok()) << voidedSlice.status();
   EXPECT_THAT(i2Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i2Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i4Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i4Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i8Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i8Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f2Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f2Slice.value().dimensions();
+              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5));
   EXPECT_THAT(f4Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f4Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f8Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f8Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(voidedSlice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5, 14))
-      << voidedSlice.value().dimensions();
+              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5));
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, zarrCompatibility) {
-  const char* basePath = std::getenv(PROJECT_BASE_PATH_ENV);
-  if (!basePath) {
-    std::cout << "PROJECT_BASE_PATH environment variable not set. Expecting to "
-                 "be in the 'build/mdio' directory."
-              << std::endl;
-    basePath = DEFAULT_BASE_PATH;
-  }
-
-  // Resolve the absolute path for the script
-  std::string srcPath = std::string(basePath) + ZARR_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH;
-
-  // Ensure that srcPath is valid and points to an existing file
-  if (access(srcPath.c_str(), F_OK) == -1) {
-    std::cerr << "Error: Python script not found at " << srcPath << std::endl;
-    FAIL() << "Script not found: " << srcPath;
-  }
-
-  std::vector<std::string> args = {"i2", "i4", "i8",    "f2",
-                                   "f4", "f8", "voided"};
-  std::vector<pid_t> pids;
-
-  for (const auto& arg : args) {
-    pid_t pid = fork();
-    if (pid == 0) {
-      // Child process
-      int result = executePythonScript(srcPath, {FILE_PATH_BASE + arg});
-      if (result == 0xfd00) {  // 0xfd from Python is 0xfd00 in C++
-        GTEST_SKIP() << "Zarr compatibility skipped due to import error for "
-                        "required library";
-        exit(SUCCESS_CODE);
-      }
-      exit(result);
-    } else if (pid > 0) {
-      // Parent process
-      pids.push_back(pid);
-    } else {
-      // Fork failed
-      perror("fork failed");
-      FAIL() << "fork failed";
-    }
-  }
+TEST_P(VariableTest, sliceByDimName) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
 
-  // Wait for all child processes
-  for (pid_t pid : pids) {
-    int status;
-    if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) == -1) {
-      perror("waitpid failed");
-      FAIL() << "waitpid failed";
-    }
-    if (WIFEXITED(status) && WEXITSTATUS(status) == 0xfd00) {
-      GTEST_SKIP() << "Zarr compatibility skipped due to import error for "
-                      "required library";
-    }
-    EXPECT_TRUE(WIFEXITED(status) && WEXITSTATUS(status) == 0)
-        << "Failed to read one of the arguments\n\tMore detailed error "
-           "expected above...";
-  }
-}
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> inlineSlice = {"inline", 0, 5, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> crosslineSpec = {"crossline", 0, 5, 1};
+  auto i2Slice = i2.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
 
-TEST(Variable, dimensionUnits) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i2.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << i2.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i4.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << i4.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i8.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << i8.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f2.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << f2.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f4.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << f4.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f8.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << f8.value().getMetadata();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(voided.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"))
-      << voided.value().getMetadata();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(i2Slice.status().ok()) << i2Slice.status();
+  EXPECT_THAT(i2Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
+              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5));
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, chunkSize) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, dimensionUnits) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i2.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << i2.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i4.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << i4.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i8.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << i8.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f2.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << f2.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f4.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << f4.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f8.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << f8.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(voided.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok())
-      << voided.value().get_chunk_shape().status();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(i2.value().getMetadata().contains("dimension_units"));
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, getCompressor) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, chunkSize) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  auto i2Json = i2.value().get_spec();
-  auto i4Json = i4.value().get_spec();
-  auto i8Json = i8.value().get_spec();
-  auto f2Json = f2.value().get_spec();
-  auto f4Json = f4.value().get_spec();
-  auto f8Json = f8.value().get_spec();
-  auto voidedJson = voided.value().get_spec();
-
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2Json.status().ok()) << i2Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4Json.status().ok()) << i4Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8Json.status().ok()) << i8Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2Json.status().ok()) << f2Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4Json.status().ok()) << f4Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8Json.status().ok()) << f8Json.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voidedJson.status().ok()) << voidedJson.status();
-
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i2Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << i2Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i4Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << i4Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i8Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << i8Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f2Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << f2Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f4Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << f4Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f8Json.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << f8Json.value();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(voidedJson.value()["metadata"].contains("compressor"))
-      << voidedJson.value();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(i2.value().get_chunk_shape().status().ok());
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, shape) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, shape) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_THAT(i2.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << i2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i4.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << i4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i8.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << i8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f2.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << f2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f4.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << f4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f8.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10))
-      << f8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(voided.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10, 14))
-      << voided.value().dimensions();
+  EXPECT_THAT(i2.value().dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(10, 10));
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, dtype) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kInt16) << i2.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kInt32) << i4.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kInt64) << i8.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kFloat16)
-      << f2.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kFloat32)
-      << f4.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kFloat64)
-      << f8.value().dtype();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().dtype(), mdio::constants::kByte)
-      << voided.value().dtype();
+TEST_P(VariableTest, dtype) {
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    auto var = OpenTestVariable(def.name, version_, base_path_);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok()) << var.status();
+    EXPECT_EQ(var.value().dtype(), def.expected_dtype)
+        << "dtype mismatch for " << def.name;
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(Variable, domain) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, domain) {
+  auto i2 = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
 
   const mdio::Index EXPECTED_SHAPE = 10;
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << i2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << i4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << i8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << f2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << f4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << f8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE)
-      << voided.value().dimensions();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << i2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i4.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << i4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(i8.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << i8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f2.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << f2.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f4.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << f4.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(f8.value().dimensions().rank(), 2) << f8.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_EQ(voided.value().dimensions().rank(), 3)
-      << voided.value().dimensions();
-}
-
-TEST(Variable, sliceByDimName) {
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto i8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f2Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f4 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f4Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto f8 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(f8Base, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  auto voided = mdio::Variable<>::Open(voidedBase, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i4.status().ok()) << i4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i8.status().ok()) << i8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f2.status().ok()) << f2.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f4.status().ok()) << f4.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(f8.status().ok()) << f8.status();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(voided.status().ok()) << voided.status();
-
-  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> inlineSlice = {"inline", 0, 5, 1};
-  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> crosslineSpec = {"crossline", 0, 5, 1};
-  auto i2Slice = i2.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto i4Slice = i4.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto i8Slice = i8.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto f2Slice = f2.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto f4Slice = f4.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto f8Slice = f8.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-  auto voidedSlice = voided.value().slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
-
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i2Slice.status().ok()) << i2.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i4Slice.status().ok()) << i4Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(i8Slice.status().ok()) << i8Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f2Slice.status().ok()) << f2Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f4Slice.status().ok()) << f4Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(f8Slice.status().ok()) << f8Slice.status();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(voidedSlice.status().ok()) << voidedSlice.status();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i2Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i2Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i4Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i4Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(i8Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << i8Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f2Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f2Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f4Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f4Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(f8Slice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << f8Slice.value().dimensions();
-  EXPECT_THAT(voidedSlice.value().dimensions().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5, 14))
-      << voidedSlice.value().dimensions();
+  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().dimensions().shape()[0], EXPECTED_SHAPE);
+  EXPECT_EQ(i2.value().dimensions().rank(), 2);
 }
 
-// A test to clean up after the test suite
-TEST(Variable, TEARDOWN) {
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/i2");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/i4");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/i8");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/f2");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/f4");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/f8");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/voided");
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance");
-  ASSERT_TRUE(true);
+TEST_P(VariableTest, TEARDOWN) {
+  for (const auto& def : kTestVariables) {
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_ + "/" + def.name);
+  }
 }
 
-}  // namespace VariableTesting
-
-namespace VariableDataTest {
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, VariableTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized VariableData Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class VariableDataTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+  }
 
-template <typename T = void, mdio::DimensionIndex R = mdio::dynamic_rank,
-          mdio::ReadWriteMode M = mdio::ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
-mdio::Variable<T, R, M> getVariable() {
-  nlohmann::json i2Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i2"
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto i2 = mdio::Variable<>::Open(i2Spec, (mdio::constants::kOpen));
-  if (!i2.status().ok()) {
-    std::cout << "Error opening i2: " << i2.status() << std::endl;
-    return mdio::Variable<T, R, M>();
+  mdio::Variable<> getVariable() {
+    auto var = OpenTestVariable("i2", version_, base_path_);
+    if (!var.status().ok()) {
+      std::cout << "Error opening i2: " << var.status() << std::endl;
+      return mdio::Variable<>();
+    }
+    return var.value();
   }
-  return i2.value();
-}
 
-TEST(VariableData, SETUP) {
-  mdio::TransactionalOpenOptions options;
-  auto opt = options.Set(std::move(mdio::constants::kCreateClean));
-  nlohmann::json i2Spec = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/i2"
-            },
-            "metadata": {
-                "dtype": "<i2",
-                "shape": [10, 10],
-                "chunks": [5, 5],
-                "dimension_separator": "/",
-                "compressor": {
-                    "id": "blosc"
-                }
-            },
-            "attributes": {
-                "metadata": {
-                    "attributes": {
-                        "foo": "bar"
-                    }
-                },
-                "long_name": "2-byte integer test",
-                "dimension_names": ["inline", "crossline"],
-                "dimension_units": ["m", "m"]
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-  auto i2Schema = mdio::internal::ValidateAndProcessJson(i2Spec).value();
-  auto [i2Store, i2Metadata] = i2Schema;
-  auto i2 =
-      mdio::internal::CreateVariable(i2Store, i2Metadata, std::move(options));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(i2.status().ok()) << i2.status();
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, SETUP) {
+  std::filesystem::create_directories(base_path_);
+  // Only create i2 for this test class
+  CreateTestVariable(kTestVariables[0], version_, base_path_);
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, name) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, name) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
-  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.variableName, "i2") << variableData.variableName;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.variableName, "i2");
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, longName) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, longName) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
-  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.longName, "2-byte integer test")
-      << variableData.longName;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.longName, "2-byte integer test");
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, optionalAttrs) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, optionalAttrs) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
-  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["metadata"]["attributes"]["foo"], "bar")
-      << variableData.metadata.dump(4);
+  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["metadata"]["attributes"]["foo"], "bar");
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, namedDimensions) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, namedDimensions) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
-  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["dimension_names"].size(), 2)
-      << variableData.metadata;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["dimension_names"].size(), 2);
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, sliceByDimIdx) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, sliceByDimIdx) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> zeroIdxSlice = {0, 0, 5, 1};
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> oneIdxSlice = {1, 0, 5, 1};
   auto slicedVariableData = variableData.slice(zeroIdxSlice, oneIdxSlice);
   ASSERT_TRUE(slicedVariableData.status().ok()) << slicedVariableData.status();
   EXPECT_THAT(slicedVariableData.value().domain().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << slicedVariableData.value().domain();
+              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5));
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, sliceByDimName) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, sliceByDimName) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> inlineSlice = {"inline", 0, 5, 1};
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> crosslineSpec = {"crossline", 0, 5, 1};
   auto slicedVariableData = variableData.slice(inlineSlice, crosslineSpec);
   ASSERT_TRUE(slicedVariableData.status().ok()) << slicedVariableData.status();
   EXPECT_THAT(slicedVariableData.value().domain().shape(),
-              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5))
-      << slicedVariableData.value().domain();
+              ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 5));
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, writeToStore) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, writeToStore) {
   auto variable = getVariable();
   auto variableData = variable.Read().value();
   auto data =
@@ -1085,374 +650,104 @@ TEST(VariableData, writeToStore) {
   auto variableCheck = getVariable().Read().value();
   auto dataCheck =
       reinterpret_cast<int16_t*>(variableCheck.get_data_accessor().data());
-  EXPECT_EQ(dataCheck[0], 0xff) << dataCheck[0];
+  EXPECT_EQ(dataCheck[0], 0xff);
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, dimensionUnits) {
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, dimensionUnits) {
   auto variableData = getVariable().Read().value();
-  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["dimension_units"].size(), 2)
-      << variableData.metadata;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variableData.metadata["dimension_units"].size(), 2);
 }
 
-TEST(VariableData, TEARDOWN) {
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance/i2");
+TEST_P(VariableDataTest, TEARDOWN) {
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_ + "/i2");
   ASSERT_TRUE(true);
 }
 
-}  // namespace VariableDataTest
-
-namespace DatasetTest {
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, VariableDataTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Dataset Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class DatasetTest : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    dataset_manifest_ = GetDatasetManifest(version_);
+    expected_var_count_ = 9;  // Both versions support struct arrays
+  }
 
-// clang-format off
-/*NOLINT*/  std::string datasetManifest = R"(
-{
-  "metadata": {
-    "name": "campos_3d",
-    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
-    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
-    "attributes": {
-      "textHeader": [
-        "C01 .......................... ",
-        "C02 .......................... ",
-        "C03 .......................... "
-      ],
-      "foo": "bar"
-    }
-  },
-  "variables": [
-    {
-      "name": "image",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
-        {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
-        },
-        "statsV1": {
-          "count": 100,
-          "sum": 1215.1,
-          "sumSquares": 125.12,
-          "min": 5.61,
-          "max": 10.84,
-          "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
-        },
-        "attributes": {
-          "fizz": "buzz"
-        }
-    },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
-      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "velocity",
-      "dataType": "float64",
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
-        },
-        "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "image_inline",
-      "dataType": "int16",
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
-      "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
-      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
-        }
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "image_headers",
-      "dataType": {
-        "fields": [
-          {"name": "cdp-x", "format": "int32"},
-          {"name": "cdp-y", "format": "int32"},
-          {"name": "elevation", "format": "float16"},
-          {"name": "some_scalar", "format": "float16"}
-        ]
-      },
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline"],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128] }
-        }
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "inline",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "crossline",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "depth",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "cdp-x",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "cdp-y",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    }
-  ]
-}
-    )";
-// clang-format on
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+  std::string dataset_manifest_;
+  size_t expected_var_count_;
+};
 
-TEST(DatasetSpec, valid) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto res = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, specValid) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto res = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
   std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed = res.value();
   std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
-  EXPECT_EQ(variables.size(), 9) << variables.size();
+  EXPECT_EQ(variables.size(), expected_var_count_);
+
+  // Verify driver name
+  std::string expected_driver = GetTestDriverName(version_);
+  for (const auto& var : variables) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(var["driver"], expected_driver);
+  }
 }
 
-TEST(DatasetSpec, invalid) {
-  // manifest["variables"][0] missing "name" field
-  // Compressor for image_inline is also invalid
-  std::string manifest = R"(
-{
-  "metadata": {
-    "name": "campos_3d",
-    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
-    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
-    "attributes": {
-      "textHeader": [
-        "C01 .......................... ",
-        "C02 .......................... ",
-        "C03 .......................... "
-      ],
-      "foo": "bar"
-    }
-  },
-  "variables": [
-    {
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
-        {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
-        },
-        "statsV1": {
-          "count": 100,
-          "sum": 1215.1,
-          "sumSquares": 125.12,
-          "min": 5.61,
-          "max": 10.84,
-          "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
-        },
-        "attributes": {
-          "fizz": "buzz"
-        }
-    },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
-      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "velocity",
-      "dataType": "float16",
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
-        },
-        "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "image_inline",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
-      "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
-      "compressor": {"name": "zfp", "mode": "fixed_accuracy", "tolerance": 0.05},
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [4, 512, 512] }
-        }
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "image_headers",
-      "dataType": {
-        "fields": [
-          {"name": "cdp-x", "format": "int32"},
-          {"name": "cdp-y", "format": "int32"},
-          {"name": "elevation", "format": "float16"},
-          {"name": "some_scalar", "format": "float16"}
-        ]
-      },
-      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline"],
-      "metadata": {
-        "chunkGrid": {
-          "name": "regular",
-          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128] }
-        }
-      },
-      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "inline",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "crossline",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "depth",
-      "dataType": "uint32",
-      "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "cdp-x",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    },
-    {
-      "name": "cdp-y",
-      "dataType": "float32",
-      "dimensions": [
-        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
-        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
-      ],
-      "metadata": {
-        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
-      }
-    }
-  ]
-}
-    )";
-
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
-  auto res = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
-  ASSERT_FALSE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
-}
-
-TEST(Dataset, fillValue) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, "zarrs/acceptance",
-                                     mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(ds.status().ok()) << ds.status();
-
-  std::string key = "image_headers";
-  auto var = ds.value().get_variable(key);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok()) << var.status();
-  auto vdf = var.value().Read();
-  ASSERT_TRUE(vdf.status().ok()) << vdf.status();
-  auto vd = vdf.value();
-
-  auto data =
-      reinterpret_cast<mdio::dtypes::byte_t*>(vd.get_data_accessor().data());
-  std::byte zero = std::byte(0);
-  for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
-    ASSERT_EQ(data[i], zero) << "Expected 0 at byte " << i << " but got "
-                             << static_cast<int>(data[i]);
-  }
-
-  // This still doesn't work. We end up with the same empty fill values {, , , ,
-  // , , , , , , , } auto dataRes =
-  // tensorstore::StaticDataTypeCast<mdio::dtypes::byte_t>(vd.get_data_accessor());
-  // ASSERT_TRUE(dataRes.status().ok()) << dataRes.status();
-  // auto d = dataRes.value();
-  // std::cout << d[0][0] << std::endl;
-}
-
-TEST(Dataset, open) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, open) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
-
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
   auto dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, condensed) {
-  std::string path = "zarrs/acceptance/";
-  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::Open(path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(ds.status().ok()) << ds.status();
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, condensed) {
+  // First create the dataset
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  std::string missingSlashPath = "zarrs/acceptance";
-  auto ds2 = mdio::Dataset::Open(missingSlashPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(ds2.status().ok()) << ds2.status();
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
+  auto createDs =
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(createDs.status().ok()) << createDs.status();
+
+  // Now test opening with just the path
+  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(ds.status().ok())
+      << "Failed to open with trailing slash: " << ds.status();
+
+  // Test without trailing slash
+  std::string path_no_slash = base_path_;
+  if (!path_no_slash.empty() && path_no_slash.back() == '/') {
+    path_no_slash.pop_back();
+  }
+  auto ds2 = mdio::Dataset::Open(path_no_slash, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(ds2.status().ok())
+      << "Failed to open without trailing slash: " << ds2.status();
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, read) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, read) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
-
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
   auto dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
@@ -1465,17 +760,15 @@ TEST(Dataset, read) {
   }
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, write) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
-
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, write) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
   auto dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
   auto ds = dataset.value();
 
   std::vector<std::string> names = ds.variables.get_keys();
@@ -1568,50 +861,32 @@ TEST(Dataset, write) {
     ASSERT_TRUE(w.status().ok()) << w.status();
   }
 
+  // Test SelectField and negative case for struct arrays
   std::string fielded = "image_headers";
   ASSERT_TRUE(ds.SelectField(fielded, "cdp-x").status().ok());
   auto wf = ds.get_variable(fielded).value().Write(readVariables[4]);
   ASSERT_FALSE(wf.status().ok()) << wf.status();
 
-  nlohmann::json imageJson = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/image"
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-
-  nlohmann::json velocityJson = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/velocity"
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-
-  nlohmann::json imageInlineJson = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/image_inline"
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
-
-  nlohmann::json imageHeadersJson = R"(
-        {
-            "driver": "zarr",
-            "kvstore": {
-                "driver": "file",
-                "path": "zarrs/acceptance/image_headers"
-            }
-        }
-    )"_json;
+  std::string driver = GetTestDriverName(version_);
+  nlohmann::json imageJson;
+  imageJson["driver"] = driver;
+  imageJson["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  imageJson["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path_ + "/image";
+
+  nlohmann::json velocityJson;
+  velocityJson["driver"] = driver;
+  velocityJson["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  velocityJson["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path_ + "/velocity";
+
+  nlohmann::json imageInlineJson;
+  imageInlineJson["driver"] = driver;
+  imageInlineJson["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  imageInlineJson["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path_ + "/image_inline";
+
+  nlohmann::json imageHeadersJson;
+  imageHeadersJson["driver"] = driver;
+  imageHeadersJson["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  imageHeadersJson["kvstore"]["path"] = base_path_ + "/image_headers";
 
   auto image = mdio::Variable<>::Open(imageJson, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   auto velocity = mdio::Variable<>::Open(velocityJson, mdio::constants::kOpen);
@@ -1641,174 +916,154 @@ TEST(Dataset, write) {
       velocityData.value().get_data_accessor().data());
   auto castedImageInline = reinterpret_cast<int16_t*>(
       imageInlineData.value().get_data_accessor().data());
-  auto castedImageHeaders = reinterpret_cast<mdio::dtypes::byte_t*>(
-      imageHeadersData.value().get_data_accessor().data());
 
   EXPECT_EQ(castedImage[0], 3.14f) << castedImage[0];
   EXPECT_EQ(castedVelociy[0], 2.71828) << castedVelociy[0];
   EXPECT_EQ(castedImageInline[0], 0xff) << castedImageInline[0];
-  // EXPECT_EQ(castedImageHeaders[0], std::byte(0xffffffffffff)) << "Struct
-  // array was not correct value";
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, name) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, name) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
-
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
   auto dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
 
-  auto ds = dataset.value();
-
-  EXPECT_EQ(ds.getMetadata()["name"], "campos_3d") << ds.getMetadata();
+  std::string expected_name =
+      version_ == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "campos_3d_v3" : "campos_3d";
+  EXPECT_EQ(dataset.value().getMetadata()["name"], expected_name);
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, optionalAttrs) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, optionalAttrs) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
-
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
   auto dataset =
       mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
 
-  auto ds = dataset.value();
-
-  EXPECT_TRUE(ds.getMetadata().contains("name")) << ds.getMetadata();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.value().getMetadata().contains("name"));
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, isel) {
-  std::string path = "zarrs/acceptance";
-  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, isel) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
+  auto dataset =
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
   auto ds = dataset.value();
 
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc1 = {"inline", 0, 5, 1};
   auto slice = ds.isel(desc1);
-  ASSERT_TRUE(slice.status().ok());
+  ASSERT_TRUE(slice.status().ok()) << slice.status();
 
   auto domain = slice->domain;
   ASSERT_EQ(domain.rank(), 3) << "This should have a rank of 3...";
 
-  // Check depth range
   auto depthRange = domain[1];
-  EXPECT_EQ(depthRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0)
-      << "Depth range should start at 0";
-  EXPECT_EQ(depthRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 384)
-      << "Depth range should end at 384";
+  EXPECT_EQ(depthRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(depthRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 384);
 
-  // Check crossline range
   auto crosslineRange = domain[0];
-  EXPECT_EQ(crosslineRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0)
-      << "Crossline range should start at 0";
-  EXPECT_EQ(crosslineRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 512)
-      << "Crossline range should end at 512";
+  EXPECT_EQ(crosslineRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(crosslineRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 512);
 
-  // Check inline range
   auto inlineRange = domain[2];
-  EXPECT_EQ(inlineRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0)
-      << "Inline range should start at 0";
-  EXPECT_EQ(inlineRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 5)
-      << "Inline range should end at 5";
+  EXPECT_EQ(inlineRange.interval().inclusive_min(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(inlineRange.interval().exclusive_max(), 5);
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, xarrayCompatible) {
-  const char* basePath = std::getenv(PROJECT_BASE_PATH_ENV);
-  if (!basePath) {
-    std::cout << "PROJECT_BASE_PATH environment variable not set. Expecting to "
-                 "be in the 'build/mdio' directory."
-              << std::endl;
-    basePath = DEFAULT_BASE_PATH;
-  }
-
-  // Resolve the absolute path for the script
-  std::string srcPath = std::string(basePath) + XARRAY_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH;
-
-  // Ensure that srcPath is valid and points to an existing file
-  if (access(srcPath.c_str(), F_OK) == -1) {
-    std::cerr << "Error: Python script not found at " << srcPath << std::endl;
-    FAIL() << "Script not found: " << srcPath;
-  }
-
-  std::vector<std::string> metadataOptions = {"False", "True"};
-  std::vector<pid_t> pids;
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, listVars) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
+  auto construct = Construct(j, base_path_, version_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
 
-  for (const auto& option : metadataOptions) {
-    pid_t pid = fork();
-    if (pid == 0) {
-      // Child process
-      int result = executePythonScript(srcPath, {FILE_PATH_BASE, option});
-      if (result == 0xfd00) {  // 0xfd from Python is 0xfd00 in C++
-        GTEST_SKIP()
-            << "Xarray compatibility skipped due to import error for xarray";
-        exit(SUCCESS_CODE);
-      }
-      exit(result);
-    } else if (pid > 0) {
-      // Parent process
-      pids.push_back(pid);
-    } else {
-      // Fork failed
-      perror("fork failed");
-      FAIL() << "fork failed";
-    }
-  }
+  auto [metadata, variables] = construct.value();
+  auto dataset =
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
 
-  // Wait for all child processes
-  for (pid_t pid : pids) {
-    int status;
-    if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) == -1) {
-      perror("waitpid failed");
-      FAIL() << "waitpid failed";
-    }
-    if (WIFEXITED(status) && WEXITSTATUS(status) == 0xfd00) {
-      GTEST_SKIP()
-          << "Xarray compatibility skipped due to import error for xarray";
-    }
-    ASSERT_TRUE(WIFEXITED(status) && WEXITSTATUS(status) == 0)
-        << "xarray compatibility test failed with one of the metadata "
-           "options\n\tThere was some expected output above...";
-  }
+  std::vector<std::string> varList = dataset.value().variables.get_keys();
+  EXPECT_EQ(varList.size(), expected_var_count_);
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, listVars) {
-  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(datasetManifest);
-  auto construct = Construct(j, "zarrs/acceptance");
-  ASSERT_TRUE(construct.status().ok()) << construct.status();
-
-  std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>> parsed =
-      construct.value();
-  nlohmann::json metadata = std::get<0>(parsed);
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(parsed);
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, fromJson) {
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_ + "/from_json_test");
 
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(dataset_manifest_);
   auto dataset =
-      mdio::Dataset::Open(metadata, variables, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+      mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, base_path_ + "/from_json_test", version_,
+                               mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
 
   std::vector<std::string> varList = dataset.value().variables.get_keys();
-  EXPECT_TRUE(varList.size() == 9) << "No variables found in dataset";
+  EXPECT_EQ(varList.size(), expected_var_count_);
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_ + "/from_json_test");
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, selectField) {
-  std::string path = "zarrs/acceptance";
-  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
-  std::string name = "image_headers";
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, selectField) {
+  std::string manifest = R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "select_field_test",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00"
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "image_headers",
+      "dataType": {
+        "fields": [
+          {"name": "cdp-x", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "cdp-y", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "elevation", "format": "float16"},
+          {"name": "some_scalar", "format": "float16"}
+        ]
+      },
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 128},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 128}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [64, 64] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "inline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 128}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "crossline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 128}]
+    }
+  ]
+}
+  )";
 
+  std::string test_path = base_path_ + "/select_field_test";
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
   auto ds = dataset.value();
+  std::string name = "image_headers";
 
   EXPECT_TRUE(ds.get_variable(name).value().dtype() == mdio::constants::kByte)
       << "Failed to pull byte array from image_headers";
@@ -1845,13 +1100,482 @@ TEST(Dataset, selectField) {
 
   EXPECT_FALSE(ds.SelectField("image_headers", "NotAField").status().ok())
       << "Somehow pulled NotAField from image_headers";
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
 }
 
-TEST(Dataset, TEARDOWN) {
-  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/acceptance");
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, fillValue) {
+  std::string manifest = R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "fill_value_test",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00"
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "image_headers",
+      "dataType": {
+        "fields": [
+          {"name": "cdp-x", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "cdp-y", "format": "int32"},
+          {"name": "elevation", "format": "float16"},
+          {"name": "some_scalar", "format": "float16"}
+        ]
+      },
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128] }
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "inline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "crossline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    }
+  ]
+}
+  )";
+
+  std::string test_path = base_path_ + "/fill_value_test";
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path, version_,
+                                     mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(ds.status().ok()) << ds.status();
+
+  std::string key = "image_headers";
+  auto var = ds.value().get_variable(key);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(var.status().ok()) << var.status();
+  auto vdf = var.value().Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(vdf.status().ok()) << vdf.status();
+  auto vd = vdf.value();
+
+  auto data =
+      reinterpret_cast<mdio::dtypes::byte_t*>(vd.get_data_accessor().data());
+  std::byte zero = std::byte(0);
+  for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+    ASSERT_EQ(data[i], zero) << "Expected 0 at byte " << i << " but got "
+                             << static_cast<int>(data[i]);
+  }
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetTest, TEARDOWN) {
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(true);
 }
 
-}  // namespace DatasetTest
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, DatasetTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Python/Xarray Dataset Compatibility Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class XarrayCompatibilityTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+  }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(XarrayCompatibilityTest, datasetCompatible) {
+  // This test verifies that a Dataset created by MDIO can be opened by xarray.
+  // The dataset is created fresh for this test to ensure isolation.
+  std::string manifest = R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "xarray_compat_test",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00"
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "data",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "x", "size": 10},
+        {"name": "y", "size": 10}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [5, 5] }
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "x",
+      "dataType": "int32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "x", "size": 10}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "y",
+      "dataType": "int32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "y", "size": 10}]
+    }
+  ]
+}
+  )";
+
+  std::string test_path = base_path_ + "/xarray_compat";
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path, version_,
+                                     mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(ds.status().ok()) << ds.status();
+
+  std::string srcPath =
+      std::string(GetPythonBasePath()) + XARRAY_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH;
+
+  if (access(srcPath.c_str(), F_OK) == -1) {
+    std::cerr << "Error: Python script not found at " << srcPath << std::endl;
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+    FAIL() << "Script not found: " << srcPath;
+  }
+
+  // Test without consolidated metadata (both versions)
+  // Note: Consolidated metadata is only supported for V2
+  std::vector<std::vector<std::string>> arg_sets = {
+      {test_path + "/", "False"},
+  };
+  if (version_ == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+    // Also test with consolidated metadata for V2
+    arg_sets.push_back({test_path + "/", "True"});
+  }
+
+  std::string version_name = ZarrVersionToString(version_);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(RunPythonScripts(
+      srcPath, arg_sets, "Xarray compatibility skipped due to import error"))
+      << "xarray " << version_name << " compatibility test failed";
+
+  // std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, XarrayCompatibilityTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Python/Multidimio Dataset Compatibility Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class MultidimioCompatibilityTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+  }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(MultidimioCompatibilityTest, datasetCompatible) {
+  // This test verifies that a Dataset created by multidimio can be opened by
+  // C++, for both Zarr V2 and V3. It runs the python script to ingest a real
+  // SEG-Y dataset to an MDIO dataset. The python ingestion honors the requested
+  // Zarr format via the ZARR_DEFAULT_ZARR_FORMAT environment variable, which
+  // the forked interpreter inherits.
+  std::string test_path = base_path_ + "/multidimio_compat";
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+
+  std::string srcPath =
+      std::string(GetPythonBasePath()) + MULTIDIMIO_SCRIPT_RELATIVE_PATH;
+
+  if (access(srcPath.c_str(), F_OK) == -1) {
+    std::cerr << "Error: Python script not found at " << srcPath << std::endl;
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+    FAIL() << "Script not found: " << srcPath;
+  }
+
+  const std::string zarr_format =
+      version_ == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "3" : "2";
+  setenv("ZARR_DEFAULT_ZARR_FORMAT", zarr_format.c_str(), /*overwrite=*/1);
+
+  std::vector<std::vector<std::string>> arg_sets = {
+      {test_path + "/"},
+  };
+
+  bool scripts_passed = RunPythonScripts(
+      srcPath, arg_sets,
+      "Multidimio compatibility skipped due to import error");
+  unsetenv("ZARR_DEFAULT_ZARR_FORMAT");
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(scripts_passed) << "multidimio compatibility test failed";
+
+  // Now try to open the ingested dataset with C++
+  std::cout << "Attempting to open the ingested dataset with C++..."
+            << std::endl;
+  auto ds = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(ds.status().ok()) << ds.status();
+
+  auto dataset = ds.value();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.header_variables.contains_key("segy_file_header"));
+
+  auto header_var = dataset.get_header_variable("segy_file_header");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header_var.status().ok()) << header_var.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(header_var.value().get_variable_name(), "segy_file_header");
+  EXPECT_EQ(header_var.value().rank(), 0);
+
+  auto read_future = header_var.value().Read();
+  EXPECT_FALSE(read_future.status().ok());
+
+  std::stringstream printed;
+  printed << dataset;
+  EXPECT_THAT(printed.str(), ::testing::HasSubstr("Header Variable: segy_file_header"));
+
+  auto attrs = header_var.value().GetAttributes();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(attrs.contains("attributes"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(attrs["attributes"].contains("textHeader"));
+  nlohmann::json updated_attrs = attrs;
+  updated_attrs["attributes"]["testMarker"] = "cpp-mdio";
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header_var.value().UpdateAttributes(updated_attrs).ok());
+
+  // Persist through the Dataset commit path, which rewrites the consolidated
+  // metadata and republishes the variable attributes together, keeping them in
+  // sync. This is the canonical way to persist metadata changes.
+  auto commit_future = dataset.CommitMetadata();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(commit_future.status().ok()) << commit_future.status();
+
+  auto reopened = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(reopened.status().ok()) << reopened.status();
+  auto reopened_header =
+      reopened.value().get_header_variable("segy_file_header");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(reopened_header.status().ok()) << reopened_header.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(reopened_header.value().GetAttributes()["attributes"]["testMarker"],
+            "cpp-mdio");
+
+  // Clean up
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(test_path);
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, MultidimioCompatibilityTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Dataset::from_json with Version Parameter Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class DatasetFromJsonTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_) + "/from_json";
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  std::string GetSimpleManifest() {
+    return R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "from_json_test",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00"
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "data",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "x", "size": 32},
+        {"name": "y", "size": 32}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [16, 16] }
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "x",
+      "dataType": "int32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "x", "size": 32}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "y",
+      "dataType": "int32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "y", "size": 32}]
+    }
+  ]
+}
+    )";
+  }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(DatasetFromJsonTest, createWithExplicitVersion) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, base_path_, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(ds.getMetadata()["name"], "from_json_test");
+
+  std::vector<std::string> varList = ds.variables.get_keys();
+  EXPECT_EQ(varList.size(), 3);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetFromJsonTest, createWithOptionalVersion) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
+      j, base_path_, std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>(version_),
+      mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(ds.getMetadata()["name"], "from_json_test");
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetFromJsonTest, readWrite) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto ds = datasetRes.value();
+
+  auto dataVarRes = ds.variables.get<mdio::dtypes::float32_t>("data");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataVarRes.status().ok()) << dataVarRes.status();
+  auto dataVar = dataVarRes.value();
+
+  auto dataRes = dataVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataRes.status().ok()) << dataRes.status();
+  auto data = dataRes.value();
+
+  auto accessor = data.get_data_accessor().data();
+  accessor[0] = 42.0f;
+  accessor[1] = 43.0f;
+
+  auto writeFut = dataVar.Write(data);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(writeFut.status().ok()) << writeFut.status();
+
+  auto rereadFut = dataVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(rereadFut.status().ok()) << rereadFut.status();
+  auto rereadData = rereadFut.value();
+  auto rereadAccessor = rereadData.get_data_accessor().data();
+
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[0], 42.0f);
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[1], 43.0f);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetFromJsonTest, isel) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto ds = datasetRes.value();
+
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc1 = {"x", 0, 10, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc2 = {"y", 5, 15, 1};
+  auto sliceRes = ds.isel(desc1, desc2);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(sliceRes.status().ok()) << sliceRes.status();
+  auto slice = sliceRes.value();
+
+  auto domain = slice.domain;
+  ASSERT_EQ(domain.rank(), 2);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetFromJsonTest, intervals) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto ds = datasetRes.value();
+
+  auto intervalRes = ds.get_intervals();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(intervalRes.ok()) << intervalRes.status();
+  auto intervals = intervalRes.value();
+
+  EXPECT_GE(intervals.size(), 2);
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, DatasetFromJsonTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// Test nullopt version (should default to V2)
+TEST(DatasetFromJsonNullopt, createWithNulloptVersion) {
+  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/from_json_nullopt");
+
+  std::string manifest = R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "nullopt_test",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00"
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "data",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "x", "size": 10}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "x",
+      "dataType": "int32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "x", "size": 10}]
+    }
+  ]
+}
+  )";
+
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> version = std::nullopt;
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, "zarrs/from_json_nullopt", version,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(ds.getMetadata()["name"], "nullopt_test");
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/from_json_nullopt");
+}
 
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/coordinate_selector_test.cc b/mdio/coordinate_selector_test.cc
index 93eaec9..7652daa 100644
--- a/mdio/coordinate_selector_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/coordinate_selector_test.cc
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@
 
 #include "mdio/dataset.h"
 #include "mdio/dataset_factory.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/driver.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/registry.h"
 #include "tensorstore/index_space/dim_expression.h"
@@ -43,8 +44,24 @@
 
 namespace {
 
-mdio::Result<std::string> SetupDataset() {
-  std::string ds_path = "generic_with_coords.mdio";
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "generic_with_coords_v3.mdio"
+                                                 : "generic_with_coords.mdio";
+}
+
+mdio::Result<std::string> SetupDataset(
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  std::string ds_path = GetBasePath(version);
   std::string schema_str = R"(
     {
         "metadata": {
@@ -141,8 +158,8 @@ mdio::Result<std::string> SetupDataset() {
     })";
 
   auto schema = ::nlohmann::json::parse(schema_str);
-  auto dsFut =
-      mdio::Dataset::from_json(schema, ds_path, mdio::constants::kCreate);
+  auto dsFut = mdio::Dataset::from_json(schema, ds_path, version,
+                                        mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
   if (!dsFut.status().ok()) {
     return ds_path;
   }
@@ -210,13 +227,31 @@ mdio::Result<std::string> SetupDataset() {
   return ds_path;
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, SETUP) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Coordinate Selector Tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+class CoordinateSelectorTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, SETUP) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, constructor) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, constructor) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
   auto path = pathResult.value();
 
@@ -227,8 +262,8 @@ TEST(Intersection, constructor) {
   mdio::CoordinateSelector cs(ds);
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, add_selection) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, add_selection) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
   auto path = pathResult.value();
 
@@ -248,8 +283,8 @@ TEST(Intersection, add_selection) {
   // map but got " << selections.size();
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, range_descriptors) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, range_descriptors) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
   auto path = pathResult.value();
 
@@ -285,8 +320,8 @@ TEST(Intersection, range_descriptors) {
   // to have a step of 1";
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, get_inline_range) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, get_inline_range) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
   auto path = pathResult.value();
 
@@ -311,8 +346,8 @@ TEST(Intersection, get_inline_range) {
   // }
 }
 
-TEST(Intersection, get_inline_range_dead) {
-  auto pathResult = SetupDataset();
+TEST_P(CoordinateSelectorTest, get_inline_range_dead) {
+  auto pathResult = SetupDataset(version_);
   ASSERT_TRUE(pathResult.status().ok()) << pathResult.status();
   auto path = pathResult.value();
 
@@ -338,4 +373,12 @@ TEST(Intersection, get_inline_range_dead) {
   // }
 }
 
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, CoordinateSelectorTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/dataset.h b/mdio/dataset.h
index 150940b..c4673a2 100644
--- a/mdio/dataset.h
+++ b/mdio/dataset.h
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@
 #include <limits>
 #include <map>
 #include <memory>
+#include <optional>
 #include <set>
 #include <stdexcept>
 #include <string>
@@ -32,10 +33,14 @@
 #include <vector>
 
 #include "mdio/dataset_factory.h"
+#include "mdio/header_variable.h"
 #include "mdio/variable.h"
 #include "mdio/variable_collection.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/metadata.h"
 #include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/option.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/status.h"
 
 // clang-format off
 #include <nlohmann/json-schema.hpp>  // NOLINT
@@ -48,201 +53,41 @@ namespace internal {
  * @brief Retrieves the .zarray JSON metadata from the given `metadata`.
  *
  * This function derives the .zarray JSON metadata without actually reading it.
+ * This is a compatibility wrapper that delegates to the zarr V2 implementation.
  *
  * @param metadata The input JSON metadata.
  * @return An `mdio::Result` containing the .zarray JSON metadata on success, or
  * an error on failure.
+ * @deprecated Use zarr::v2::GetZarray directly for V2 stores.
  */
 inline Result<nlohmann::json> get_zarray(const ::nlohmann::json metadata) {
-  // derive .zarray json metadata (without reading it).
-  auto json =
-      metadata;  // Why am I doing this? It's an extra copy that does nothing!
-  nlohmann::json zarray;
-  if (!json.contains("metadata")) {
-    json["metadata"] = nlohmann::json::object();  // Just add an empty object
-    json["metadata"]["attributes"] =
-        nlohmann::json::object();  // We need attributes as well
-  }
-
-  // these fields can have defaults:
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("order")) {
-    zarray["order"] = "C";
-  } else {
-    zarray["order"] = json["metadata"]["order"];
-  }
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("filters")) {
-    zarray["filters"] = nullptr;
-  } else {
-    zarray["filters"] = json["metadata"]["filters"];
-  }
-
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("fill_value")) {
-    zarray["fill_value"] = nullptr;
-  } else {
-    zarray["fill_value"] = json["metadata"]["fill_value"];
-  }
-
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("zarr_format")) {
-    zarray["zarr_format"] = 2;
-  } else {
-    zarray["zarr_format"] = json["metadata"]["zarr_format"];
-  }
-
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("chunks") &&
-      json["metadata"].contains("shape")) {
-    zarray["chunks"] = json["metadata"]["shape"];
-  } else {
-    zarray["chunks"] = json["metadata"]["chunks"];
-  }
-
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("compressor")) {
-    zarray["compressor"] = nullptr;
-  } else {
-    zarray["compressor"] = json["metadata"]["compressor"];
-  }
-
-  if (!json["metadata"].contains("dimension_separator")) {
-    zarray["dimension_separator"] = "/";
-  } else {
-    zarray["dimension_separator"] = json["metadata"]["dimension_separator"];
-  }
-
-  zarray["shape"] = json["metadata"]["shape"];
-  zarray["dtype"] = json["metadata"]["dtype"];
-
-  // fixme chunks must be configured ...
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
-      auto zarr_metadata,
-      tensorstore::internal_zarr::ZarrMetadata::FromJson(zarray))
-
-  return ::nlohmann::json(zarr_metadata);
+  return zarr::v2::GetZarray(metadata);
 }
 
 /**
- * @brief Writes the zmetadata for the dataset.
+ * @brief Writes the metadata for the dataset.
+ *
+ * For Zarr V2, writes consolidated metadata (.zmetadata, .zgroup, .zattrs).
+ * For Zarr V3, writes only root zarr.json (no consolidated metadata support).
+ *
+ * This overload auto-detects the Zarr version from the first variable's
+ * driver specification.
  *
  * @param dataset_metadata The metadata for the dataset.
  * @param json_variables The JSON variables.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
  * @return An `mdio::Future<void>` representing the asynchronous write.
  */
 inline Future<void> write_zmetadata(
     const ::nlohmann::json& dataset_metadata,
-    const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables) {
-  // header material at the root of the dataset ...
-  // Configure a kvstore (we can't deduce if it's in memory etc).
-  // {
-  //    "kvstore",
-  //    {
-  //        {"driver", "file"},
-  //        {"path", "name"}
-  //    }
-  //}
-  auto zattrs = dataset_metadata;
-
-  // FIXME - generalize for zarr v3
-  ::nlohmann::json zgroup;
-  zgroup["zarr_format"] = 2;
-
-  // The consolidated metadata for the datset
-  ::nlohmann::json zmetadata;
-
-  // FIXME - don't hard code here ...
-  zmetadata["zarr_consolidated_format"] = 1;
-
-  zmetadata["metadata"][".zattrs"] = zattrs;
-  zmetadata["metadata"][".zgroup"] = zgroup;
-
-  std::string zarray_key;
-  std::string zattrs_key;
-  std::string driver =
-      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["driver"].get<std::string>();
-
-  for (const auto& json : json_variables) {
-    zarray_key =
-        std::filesystem::path(json["kvstore"]["path"]).stem() / ".zarray";
-    zattrs_key =
-        std::filesystem::path(json["kvstore"]["path"]).stem() / ".zattrs";
-
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(zmetadata["metadata"][zarray_key], get_zarray(json))
-
-    nlohmann::json fixedJson = json["attributes"];
-    fixedJson["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = fixedJson["dimension_names"];
-    fixedJson.erase("dimension_names");
-    // We do not want to be seralizing the variable_name. It should be
-    // self-describing
-    if (fixedJson.contains("variable_name")) {
-      fixedJson.erase("variable_name");
-    }
-    if (fixedJson.contains("long_name") &&
-        fixedJson["long_name"].get<std::string>() == "") {
-      fixedJson.erase("long_name");
-    }
-    if (fixedJson.contains("metadata")) {
-      if (fixedJson["metadata"].contains("chunkGrid")) {
-        fixedJson["metadata"].erase("chunkGrid");
-      }
-      for (auto& item : fixedJson["metadata"].items()) {
-        fixedJson[item.key()] = std::move(item.value());
-      }
-      fixedJson.erase("metadata");
-    }
-    // Case where an empty array of coordinates were provided
-    if (fixedJson.contains("coordinates")) {
-      auto coords = fixedJson["coordinates"];
-      if (coords.empty() ||
-          (coords.is_string() && coords.get<std::string>() == "")) {
-        fixedJson.erase("coordinates");
-      }
-    }
-    zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key] = fixedJson;
+    const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
+  zarr::ZarrVersion version = zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2;
+  if (!json_variables.empty()) {
+    version = zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(json_variables[0]);
   }
-
-  nlohmann::json kvstore = nlohmann::json::object();
-  kvstore["driver"] = driver;
-  std::vector<std::string> file_parts = absl::StrSplit(
-      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(), '/');
-  size_t toRemove = file_parts.back().size();
-  std::string strippedPath =
-      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().substr(
-          0, json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().size() -
-                 toRemove - 1);
-  kvstore["path"] = strippedPath;
-
-  if (driver == "gcs" || driver == "s3") {
-    kvstore["bucket"] =
-        json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["bucket"].get<std::string>();
-    std::string cloudPath = kvstore["path"].get<std::string>();
-    kvstore["path"] = cloudPath;
-  }
-
-  auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore);
-
-  auto zattrs_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
-      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
-      [zattrs = std::move(zattrs)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
-        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvstore, "/.zattrs",
-                                           absl::Cord(zattrs.dump(4)));
-      },
-      kvs_future);
-
-  auto zmetadata_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
-      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
-      [zmetadata = std::move(zmetadata)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
-        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvstore, "/.zmetadata",
-                                           absl::Cord(zmetadata.dump(4)));
-      },
-      kvs_future);
-
-  auto zgroup_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
-      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
-      [zgroup = std::move(zgroup)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
-        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvstore, "/.zgroup",
-                                           absl::Cord(zgroup.dump(4)));
-      },
-      kvs_future);
-
-  return tensorstore::WaitAllFuture(zattrs_future, zmetadata_future,
-                                    zgroup_future);
+  return zarr::WriteDatasetMetadata(version, dataset_metadata, json_variables,
+                                    context);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -251,143 +96,84 @@ inline Future<void> write_zmetadata(
  * It will also attempt to infer the driver based on the prefix of the path.
  * It will default to the "file" driver if no prefix is found.
  * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
  */
 inline Future<tensorstore::KvStore> dataset_kvs_store(
-    const std::string& dataset_path) {
-  // the tensorstore driver needs a bucket field
+    const std::string& dataset_path,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
   ::nlohmann::json kvstore;
 
-  absl::string_view output_file = dataset_path;
-
-  if (absl::StartsWith(output_file, "gs://")) {
-    absl::ConsumePrefix(&output_file, "gs://");
-    kvstore["driver"] = "gcs";
-  } else if (absl::StartsWith(output_file, "s3://")) {
-    absl::ConsumePrefix(&output_file, "s3://");
-    kvstore["driver"] = "s3";
-  } else {
-    kvstore["driver"] = "file";
-    kvstore["path"] = output_file;
-    return tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore);
-  }  // FIXME - we need azure support ...
-
-  std::vector<std::string> file_parts = absl::StrSplit(output_file, '/');
-  if (file_parts.size() < 2) {
+  // Use shared utility to infer driver from path prefix
+  std::string driver = zarr::InferDriverFromPath(dataset_path);
+  kvstore["driver"] = driver;
+
+  if (driver == "file") {
+    // Local file system - just normalize with trailing slash
+    kvstore["path"] = zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash(dataset_path);
+    return tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore, context);
+  }
+
+  // Cloud storage (GCS or S3) - extract bucket and path
+  auto [bucket, path] = zarr::ExtractCloudPath(dataset_path);
+  if (bucket.empty()) {
     return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
         "gcs/s3 drivers requires [s3/gs]://[bucket]/[path_to_file]");
   }
 
-  std::string bucket = file_parts[0];
-  std::string filepath(file_parts[1]);
-  for (std::size_t i = 2; i < file_parts.size(); ++i) {
-    filepath += "/" + file_parts[i];
-  }
-  // update the bucket and path ...
   kvstore["bucket"] = bucket;
-  kvstore["path"] = filepath;
+  kvstore["path"] = zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash(path);
 
-  return tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore);
+  return tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore, context);
 }
 
 /**
- * @brief Retrieves the .zmetadata for the dataset.
- * This is for executing a read on the dataset's consolidated metadata.
- * It will also attempt to infer the driver based on the prefix of the path.
- * It will default to the "file" driver if no prefix is found.
+ * @brief Retrieves the metadata for the dataset with auto-detection.
+ * This version auto-detects the Zarr version by checking for V3 markers first.
  * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset.
- * @return An `mdio::Future` containing the .zmetadata JSON on success, or an
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
+ * @return An `mdio::Future` containing the metadata JSON on success, or an
  * error on failure.
  */
 inline Future<std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>
-from_zmetadata(const std::string& dataset_path) {
-  // e.g. dataset_path = "zarrs/acceptance/";
-  //  FIXME - enable async
-  auto kvs_future = mdio::internal::dataset_kvs_store(dataset_path).result();
-
-  if (!kvs_future.ok()) {
-    return internal::CheckMissingDriverStatus(kvs_future.status());
-  }
-  auto kvs_read_result =
-      tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvs_future.value(), ".zmetadata").result();
-  if (!kvs_read_result.ok()) {
-    return internal::CheckMissingDriverStatus(kvs_read_result.status());
-  }
-
-  ::nlohmann::json zmetadata;
-  try {
-    zmetadata =
-        ::nlohmann::json::parse(std::string(kvs_read_result.value().value));
-  } catch (const nlohmann::json::parse_error& e) {
-    // It's a common error to not have a trailing slash on the dataset path.
-    if (!dataset_path.empty() && dataset_path.back() != '/') {
-      std::string fixPath = dataset_path + "/";
-      return mdio::internal::from_zmetadata(fixPath);
-    }
-    return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument, e.what());
-  }
-
-  if (!zmetadata.contains("metadata")) {
-    return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
-                        "zmetadata does not contain metadata.");
-  }
-
-  if (!zmetadata["metadata"].contains(".zattrs")) {
-    return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
-                        "zmetadata does not contain dataset metadata.");
-  }
-
-  auto dataset_metadata = zmetadata["metadata"][".zattrs"];
-
-  std::string driver = "file";
-  // TODO(BrianMichell): Make this more robust. May be invalid if the stored
-  // path gets mangled somehow. Infer the driver
-  if (dataset_path.length() > 5) {
-    if (dataset_path.substr(0, 5) == "gs://") {
-      driver = "gcs";
-    } else if (dataset_path.substr(0, 5) == "s3://") {
-      driver = "s3";
-    }
-  }
-
-  std::string bucket;
-  std::string cloudPath;
-  if (driver != "file") {
-    std::string providedPath =
-        dataset_path.substr(5);  // Strip the gs:// or s3://
-    size_t bucketLen = providedPath.find_first_of('/');
-    bucket = providedPath.substr(0, bucketLen);  // Extract the bucket name
-    cloudPath = providedPath.substr(
-        bucketLen + 1, providedPath.length() - 2);  // Extract the path
-  }
-
-  // Remove .zattrs from metadata
-  zmetadata["metadata"].erase(".zattrs");
-  std::vector<nlohmann::json> json_vars_from_zmeta;
-  // Assemble a list of json for opening the variables in the dataset.
-  for (auto& element : zmetadata["metadata"].items()) {
-    // FIXME - remove hard code .zarray
-    if (element.key().substr(element.key().find_last_of(".") + 1) == "zarray") {
-      std::string variable_name =
-          element.key().substr(0, element.key().find("/"));
-      nlohmann::json new_dict = {
-          {"driver", "zarr"},
-          {"kvstore",
-           {{"driver", driver}, {"path", dataset_path + "/" + variable_name}}}};
-      if (driver != "file") {
-        new_dict["kvstore"]["bucket"] = bucket;
-        new_dict["kvstore"]["path"] = cloudPath + variable_name;
-      }
-      json_vars_from_zmeta.push_back(new_dict);
-    }
-  }
-  if (!json_vars_from_zmeta.size()) {
-    return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
-                        "Not variables found in zmetadata.");
-  }
+from_zmetadata(const std::string& dataset_path,
+               tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
+  auto kvs_future = mdio::internal::dataset_kvs_store(dataset_path, context);
+
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+      std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>::Make();
+
+  kvs_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [promise = std::move(pair.promise),
+       dataset_path](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> ready_kvs) {
+        if (!ready_kvs.result().ok()) {
+          promise.SetResult(
+              internal::CheckMissingDriverStatus(ready_kvs.result().status()));
+          return;
+        }
 
-  return tensorstore::ReadyFuture<
-      std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>(
-      std::make_tuple(dataset_metadata, json_vars_from_zmeta));
+        // Auto-detect version
+        auto version_future = zarr::DetectVersion(ready_kvs.value());
+        version_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+            [promise = std::move(promise), dataset_path,
+             kvs = ready_kvs.value()](
+                tensorstore::ReadyFuture<zarr::ZarrVersion> version_ready) {
+              zarr::ZarrVersion version = zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2;
+              if (version_ready.result().ok()) {
+                version = version_ready.value();
+              }
+              auto result_future = zarr::ReadDatasetMetadata(
+                  version, dataset_path,
+                  tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore>(kvs));
+
+              result_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+                  [promise = std::move(promise)](
+                      tensorstore::ReadyFuture<std::tuple<
+                          ::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>
+                          result) { promise.SetResult(result.result()); });
+            });
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
 }
 }  // namespace internal
 
@@ -402,11 +188,15 @@ class Dataset {
  public:
   Dataset(const nlohmann::json& metadata, const VariableCollection& variables,
           const coordinate_map& coordinates,
-          const tensorstore::IndexDomain<>& domain)
+          const tensorstore::IndexDomain<>& domain,
+          tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default(),
+          HeaderVariableCollection header_variables = {})
       : metadata(metadata),
         variables(variables),
         coordinates(coordinates),
-        domain(domain) {}
+        domain(domain),
+        context_(context),
+        header_variables(std::move(header_variables)) {}
 
   friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const Dataset& dataset) {
     // Output metadata
@@ -420,6 +210,12 @@ class Dataset {
          << "\n";
     }
 
+    const auto header_keys = dataset.header_variables.get_iterable_accessor();
+    for (const auto& key : header_keys) {
+      os << "Header Variable: " << key << " - Dimensions: "
+         << dataset.header_variables.at(key).value().dimensions() << "\n";
+    }
+
     // Output coordinates
     for (const auto& [key, coord_list] : dataset.coordinates) {
       os << "Variable: " << key << " - Coordinates: ";
@@ -438,6 +234,13 @@ class Dataset {
     return os;
   }
 
+  template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+            ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
+  Result<HeaderVariable<T, R, M>> get_header_variable(
+      const std::string& variable_name) {
+    return header_variables.get<T, R, M>(variable_name);
+  }
+
   /**
    * @brief Retrieves a variable from within the dataset.
    * @param variable_name The name of the variable to retrieve.
@@ -483,13 +286,99 @@ class Dataset {
     return intervals;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * @brief Constructs a Dataset from a JSON schema with explicit Zarr version.
+   * This method will validate the JSON schema against the MDIO Dataset schema
+   * and use the specified Zarr format version.
+   * @param json_schema The JSON schema to validate.
+   * @param path The path to create/open the dataset.
+   * @param zarr_version The Zarr format version to use (kV2 or kV3).
+   * @param options Variadic options for dataset creation/opening.
+   * @details \b Usage
+   *
+   * Create a Zarr V3 dataset given a schema and a path:
+   * @code
+   * auto dataset_future = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
+   *   json_spec,
+   *   dataset_path,
+   *   mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3,
+   *   mdio::constants::kCreate
+   * );
+   * @endcode
+   *
+   * @return An `mdio::Future` resolves to a Dataset if successful, or an error
+   * if the schema is invalid.
+   */
+  template <typename... Option>
+  static Future<Dataset> from_json(::nlohmann::json& json_schema /*NOLINT*/,
+                                   const std::string& path,
+                                   zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version,
+                                   Option&&... options) {
+    // json describing the vars ...
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto validated_schema,
+                          Construct(json_schema, path, zarr_version));
+    auto [dataset_metadata, json_vars] = validated_schema;
+
+    return mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_metadata, json_vars,
+                               std::forward<Option>(options)...);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Constructs a Dataset from a JSON schema with optional Zarr version.
+   * This method will validate the JSON schema against the MDIO Dataset schema
+   * and optionally use the specified Zarr format version.
+   * @param json_schema The JSON schema to validate.
+   * @param path The path to create/open the dataset.
+   * @param zarr_version Optional Zarr format version. If not specified,
+   *        auto-detects from the schema or defaults to V2.
+   * @param options Variadic options for dataset creation/opening.
+   * @details \b Usage
+   *
+   * Create a dataset with optional Zarr version:
+   * @code
+   * // With explicit version
+   * auto dataset_future = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
+   *   json_spec,
+   *   dataset_path,
+   *   std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+   *   mdio::constants::kCreate
+   * );
+   *
+   * // Without version (use std::nullopt for auto-detection or default to V2)
+   * std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> version = std::nullopt;
+   * auto dataset_future = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
+   *   json_spec,
+   *   dataset_path,
+   *   version,
+   *   mdio::constants::kCreate
+   * );
+   * @endcode
+   *
+   * @return An `mdio::Future` resolves to a Dataset if successful, or an error
+   * if the schema is invalid.
+   */
+  template <typename... Option>
+  static Future<Dataset> from_json(
+      ::nlohmann::json& json_schema /*NOLINT*/, const std::string& path,
+      std::optional<zarr::ZarrVersion> zarr_version, Option&&... options) {
+    // json describing the vars ...
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto validated_schema,
+                          Construct(json_schema, path, zarr_version));
+    auto [dataset_metadata, json_vars] = validated_schema;
+
+    return mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_metadata, json_vars,
+                               std::forward<Option>(options)...);
+  }
+
   /**
    * @brief Constructs a Dataset from a JSON schema.
    * This method will validate the JSON schema against the MDIO Dataset schema.
    * @param json_schema The JSON schema to validate.
+   * @param path The path to create/open the dataset.
+   * @param options Variadic options for dataset creation/opening.
    * @details \b Usage
    *
-   * Create  a dataset given a schema and a path, for a new dataset use options,
+   * Create a dataset given a schema and a path, for a new dataset use options,
    * @code
    * auto dataset_future = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
    *   json_spec,
@@ -506,7 +395,7 @@ class Dataset {
                                    const std::string& path,
                                    Option&&... options) {
     // json describing the vars ...
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto validated_schema, Construct(json_schema, path))
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto validated_schema, Construct(json_schema, path));
     auto [dataset_metadata, json_vars] = validated_schema;
 
     return mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_metadata, json_vars,
@@ -542,7 +431,7 @@ class Dataset {
     for (const auto& name : keys) {
       MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variable,
                             variables.at(name).value().slice(
-                                std::forward<Descriptors>(descriptors)...))
+                                std::forward<Descriptors>(descriptors)...));
       // add to variable
       vars.add(name, variable);
 
@@ -575,8 +464,9 @@ class Dataset {
                               .origin(origin)
                               .shape(shape)
                               .labels(labels)
-                              .Finalize())
-    return Dataset{metadata, vars, coordinates, new_domain};
+                              .Finalize());
+    return Dataset{metadata, vars, coordinates, new_domain, context_,
+                   header_variables};
   }
 
   /**
@@ -1007,7 +897,7 @@ class Dataset {
     // extract the variable (+ coordinates)
     VariableCollection vars;
 
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, variables.get(label))
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, variables.get(label));
     vars.add(label, var);
 
     auto domain = var.dimensions();
@@ -1015,7 +905,7 @@ class Dataset {
     // collect and dimension variables.
     for (const auto& dim_label : domain.labels()) {
       if (!vars.contains_key(dim_label)) {
-        MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, variables.get(dim_label))
+        MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, variables.get(dim_label));
         vars.add(dim_label, var);
       }
     }
@@ -1024,14 +914,14 @@ class Dataset {
     coordinate_map coords;
     if (coordinates.count(label) > 0) {
       for (const auto& coord_name : coordinates.at(label)) {
-        MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto coord, variables.get(coord_name))
+        MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto coord, variables.get(coord_name));
         vars.add(coord_name, coord);
       }
 
       coords = {{label, coordinates.at(label)}};
     }
 
-    return Dataset{metadata, vars, coords, domain};
+    return Dataset{metadata, vars, coords, domain, context_, header_variables};
   }
 
   /**
@@ -1051,16 +941,21 @@ class Dataset {
   template <typename S = std::string, typename... Option>
   static std::enable_if_t<(std::is_same_v<S, std::string>), Future<Dataset>>
   Open(const S& dataset_path, Option&&... options) {
-    TENSORSTORE_INTERNAL_ASSIGN_OPTIONS_OR_RETURN(TransactionalOpenOptions,
-                                                  transact_options, options)
+    TransactionalOpenOptions transact_options;
+    TENSORSTORE_RETURN_IF_ERROR(
+        tensorstore::internal::SetAll(transact_options, options...));
 
     if (transact_options.open_mode != constants::kOpen) {
       return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
                           "Open from path is only valid in open-mode.");
     }
 
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto params_from_zmetadata,
-                          mdio::internal::from_zmetadata(dataset_path).result())
+    // Extract context from options for metadata reading
+    tensorstore::Context context = transact_options.context;
+
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
+        auto params_from_zmetadata,
+        mdio::internal::from_zmetadata(dataset_path, context).result());
     auto [dataset_metadata, json_vars] = params_from_zmetadata;
 
     return mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_metadata, json_vars,
@@ -1083,16 +978,36 @@ class Dataset {
       const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables,
       Option&&... options) {
     // I need to know if we are intending to create a dataset from scratch?
-    TENSORSTORE_INTERNAL_ASSIGN_OPTIONS_OR_RETURN(TransactionalOpenOptions,
-                                                  transact_options, options)
+    TransactionalOpenOptions transact_options;
+    TENSORSTORE_RETURN_IF_ERROR(
+        tensorstore::internal::SetAll(transact_options, options...));
     bool do_create = transact_options.open_mode == constants::kCreateClean ||
                      transact_options.open_mode == constants::kCreate;
 
+    // Extract context from options for metadata writing
+    tensorstore::Context context = transact_options.context;
+
+    HeaderVariableCollection header_collection;
+    std::vector<::nlohmann::json> normal_specs;
+    normal_specs.reserve(json_variables.size());
+    for (const auto& json : json_variables) {
+      if (internal::IsHeaderOnlySpec(json)) {
+        auto header_var = HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(json);
+        if (!header_var.ok()) {
+          return header_var.status();
+        }
+        header_collection.add(header_var->get_variable_name(),
+                              header_var.value());
+      } else {
+        normal_specs.push_back(json);
+      }
+    }
+
     // FIXME - publish dataset
     std::vector<Future<mdio::Variable<>>> variables;
     std::vector<tensorstore::Promise<void>> promises;
     std::vector<tensorstore::AnyFuture> futures;
-    for (const auto& json : json_variables) {
+    for (const auto& json : normal_specs) {
       auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<void>::Make();
 
       auto var = mdio::Variable<>::Open(json, std::forward<Option>(options)...);
@@ -1114,7 +1029,11 @@ class Dataset {
     // here we have to publish the zmetadata ...
     if (do_create) {
       futures.push_back(
-          mdio::internal::write_zmetadata(metadata, json_variables));
+          mdio::internal::write_zmetadata(metadata, json_variables, context));
+    }
+
+    if (futures.empty()) {
+      futures.push_back(tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture());
     }
 
     // ready when everything's available ...
@@ -1123,7 +1042,8 @@ class Dataset {
     auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<Dataset>::Make();
     all_done_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
         [promise = std::move(pair.promise), variables = std::move(variables),
-         metadata](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<void> readyFut) {
+         header_collection = std::move(header_collection), metadata,
+         context](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<void> readyFut) {
           if (metadata.contains("api_version") &&
               !metadata.contains("apiVersion")) {
             promise.SetResult(
@@ -1190,7 +1110,8 @@ class Dataset {
           }
 
           Dataset new_dataset{metadata, collection, coords,
-                              dataset_domain.value()};
+                              dataset_domain.value(), context,
+                              header_collection};
           promise.SetResult(std::move(new_dataset));
         });
     return pair.future;
@@ -1236,7 +1157,17 @@ class Dataset {
       return specJsonResult.status();
     }
     nlohmann::json specJson = specJsonResult.value();
-    if (!specJson["metadata"]["dtype"].is_array()) {
+
+    // Detect Zarr version from the spec. The struct dtype layout differs
+    // between zarr formats, so delegate field extraction to the zarr layer.
+    std::string driverName = specJson.contains("driver")
+                                 ? specJson["driver"].get<std::string>()
+                                 : "zarr";
+    zarr::ZarrVersion zarrVersion = zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(specJson);
+
+    auto fieldNames =
+        zarr::GetStructFieldNames(zarrVersion, specJson["metadata"]);
+    if (fieldNames.empty()) {
       return absl::Status(
           absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
           "Variable '" + variableName + "' is not a structured dtype.");
@@ -1247,9 +1178,9 @@ class Dataset {
     if (fieldName == "") {
       found = -2;
     } else {
-      for (std::size_t i = 0; i < specJson["metadata"]["dtype"].size(); i++) {
-        if (specJson["metadata"]["dtype"][i][0] == fieldName) {
-          found = i;
+      for (std::size_t i = 0; i < fieldNames.size(); i++) {
+        if (fieldNames[i] == fieldName) {
+          found = static_cast<int>(i);
           break;
         }
       }
@@ -1263,7 +1194,7 @@ class Dataset {
     // Create a new Variable with the selected field
     std::string baseStr = R"(
             {
-                "driver": "zarr",
+                "driver": "DRIVER_PLACEHOLDER",
                 "field": "FIELD",
                 "kvstore": {
                     "driver": "DRIVER",
@@ -1272,12 +1203,13 @@ class Dataset {
             }
         )";
     nlohmann::json base = nlohmann::json::parse(baseStr, nullptr, false);
+    base["driver"] = driverName;
     if (base.is_discarded()) {
       return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInternal,
                           "Failed to parse base JSON.");
     }
     if (found >= 0) {
-      base["field"] = specJson["metadata"]["dtype"][found][0];
+      base["field"] = fieldNames[found];
     } else {
       base.erase("field");
     }
@@ -1294,8 +1226,8 @@ class Dataset {
     if (specJson["kvstore"].contains("bucket")) {
       base["kvstore"]["bucket"] = specJson["kvstore"]["bucket"];
       std::string cloudPath = base["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
-      cloudPath
-          .pop_back();  // We need to remove the trailing / from a cloud path
+      // cloudPath
+      //     .pop_back();  // We need to remove the trailing / from a cloud path
       base["kvstore"]["path"] = cloudPath;
     }
 
@@ -1336,6 +1268,7 @@ class Dataset {
    */
   tensorstore::Future<void> CommitMetadata() {
     auto keys = variables.get_iterable_accessor();
+    auto header_keys = header_variables.get_iterable_accessor();
 
     // Build out list of modified variables
     std::vector<std::string> modifiedVariables;
@@ -1350,8 +1283,19 @@ class Dataset {
       }
     }
 
+    std::vector<std::string> modifiedHeaderVariables;
+    for (const auto& key : header_keys) {
+      auto var = header_variables.at(key).value();
+      if (var.was_updated() || var.should_publish()) {
+        modifiedHeaderVariables.push_back(key);
+      }
+      if (var.should_publish()) {
+        var.set_metadata_publish_flag(false);
+      }
+    }
+
     // If nothing changed, we don't want to perform any writes
-    if (modifiedVariables.empty()) {
+    if (modifiedVariables.empty() && modifiedHeaderVariables.empty()) {
       tensorstore::Future<void> err =
           tensorstore::MakeResult<tensorstore::Future<void>>(
               absl::InvalidArgumentError("No variables were modified."));
@@ -1405,9 +1349,13 @@ class Dataset {
       json_vars.emplace_back(json);
     }
 
+    for (const auto& key : header_keys) {
+      json_vars.emplace_back(header_variables.at(key).value().ToCommitJson());
+    }
+
     // Now let's get the .zmetadata going.
     auto zmetadata_future =
-        mdio::internal::write_zmetadata(metadata, json_vars);
+        mdio::internal::write_zmetadata(metadata, json_vars, context_);
     // Finally we can loop through the updated Variables and update them.
 
     std::vector<tensorstore::Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>>
@@ -1430,6 +1378,21 @@ class Dataset {
       futures.push_back(std::move(pair.future));
     }
 
+    for (const auto& key : modifiedHeaderVariables) {
+      auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+          tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>::Make();
+      auto var = std::make_shared<HeaderVariable<>>(
+          header_variables.at(key).value());
+      auto updateFuture = var->PublishMetadata();
+      updateFuture.ExecuteWhenReady(
+          [promise = std::move(pair.promise),
+           var](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<
+                tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>
+                    readyFut) { promise.SetResult(readyFut.result()); });
+      variableFutures.push_back(std::move(updateFuture));
+      futures.push_back(std::move(pair.future));
+    }
+
     futures.push_back(zmetadata_future);
 
     auto all_done_future = tensorstore::WaitAllFuture(futures);
@@ -1461,14 +1424,26 @@ class Dataset {
   /// variables contained in the dataset
   VariableCollection variables;
 
+  /// metadata-only header variables (e.g. SEG-Y file header)
+  HeaderVariableCollection header_variables;
+
   /// link a variable name to its coordinates via its name(s)
   coordinate_map coordinates;
 
   /// enumerate the dimensions
   tensorstore::IndexDomain<> domain;
 
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the context used to open this Dataset.
+   * @return The TensorStore context.
+   */
+  tensorstore::Context getContext() const { return context_; }
+
  private:
   /// the metadata associated with the dataset (root .zattrs)
   ::nlohmann::json metadata;
+
+  /// the context used to open/create this dataset
+  tensorstore::Context context_;
 };
 }  // namespace mdio
diff --git a/mdio/dataset_factory.h b/mdio/dataset_factory.h
index 1824800..0dc25ff 100644
--- a/mdio/dataset_factory.h
+++ b/mdio/dataset_factory.h
@@ -15,19 +15,19 @@
 #ifndef MDIO_DATASET_FACTORY_H_
 #define MDIO_DATASET_FACTORY_H_
 
+#include <optional>
 #include <set>
 #include <string>
 #include <tuple>
 #include <unordered_map>
 #include <vector>
 
-#include "mdio/dataset_validator.h"
-#include "mdio/impl.h"
-// #include "tensorstore/tensorstore.h"
-
 #include "absl/strings/escaping.h"
 #include "absl/strings/str_format.h"
 #include "absl/strings/str_split.h"
+#include "mdio/dataset_validator.h"
+#include "mdio/impl.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 
 /**
  * @brief Encodes a string in base64
@@ -42,46 +42,28 @@ inline std::string encode_base64(const std::string raw) {
 }
 
 /**
- * @brief Converts a Dataset spec dtype to a numpy style dtype
+ * @brief Converts a Dataset spec dtype to a numpy style dtype (Zarr V2)
  * This function is intended to be an internal helper function for formatting
  * Variable specs It presupposes that all dtypes are little endian or endianless
  * if bool.
  * @param dtype A string representing the dtype of a Variable
  * @return A string representing the dtype in numpy format limited to the dtypes
  * supported by MDIO Dataset
+ * @deprecated Use mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype for explicit V2 conversions.
  */
 inline tensorstore::Result<std::string> to_zarr_dtype(const std::string dtype) {
-  // Convert the input dtype to Zarr dtype
-  if (dtype == "int8") {
-    return "<i1";
-  } else if (dtype == "int16") {
-    return "<i2";
-  } else if (dtype == "int32") {
-    return "<i4";
-  } else if (dtype == "int64") {
-    return "<i8";
-  } else if (dtype == "uint8") {
-    return "<u1";
-  } else if (dtype == "uint16") {
-    return "<u2";
-  } else if (dtype == "uint32") {
-    return "<u4";
-  } else if (dtype == "uint64") {
-    return "<u8";
-  } else if (dtype == "float16") {
-    return "<f2";
-  } else if (dtype == "float32") {
-    return "<f4";
-  } else if (dtype == "float64") {
-    return "<f8";
-  } else if (dtype == "bool") {
-    return "|b1";
-  } else if (dtype == "complex64") {
-    return "<c8";
-  } else if (dtype == "complex128") {
-    return "<c16";
-  }
-  return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Unknown dtype: " + dtype);
+  return mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype(dtype);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Converts a Dataset spec dtype to the appropriate Zarr format
+ * @param dtype A string representing the dtype of a Variable
+ * @param version The Zarr version to target
+ * @return The dtype in the appropriate format for the version
+ */
+inline tensorstore::Result<nlohmann::json> to_zarr_dtype(
+    const std::string dtype, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return mdio::zarr::ConvertDtype(version, dtype);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -90,27 +72,33 @@ inline tensorstore::Result<std::string> to_zarr_dtype(const std::string dtype) {
  * Variable specs It will modify with side-effect on "input"
  * @param input A MDIO Variable spec
  * @param variable A Variable stub (Will be modified)
+ * @param version The Zarr version to target (defaults to V2)
  * @return OkStatus if successful, InvalidArgumentError if dtype is not
  * supported
  */
-inline absl::Status transform_dtype(nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/,
-                                    nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/) {
+inline absl::Status transform_dtype(
+    nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/, nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  std::string dtype_key =
+      (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) ? "data_type" : "dtype";
+
   if (input["dataType"].contains("fields")) {
+    // Structured dtypes are supported in both V2 and V3
     nlohmann::json dtypeFields = nlohmann::json::array();
     for (const auto& field : input["dataType"]["fields"]) {
-      auto dtype = to_zarr_dtype(field["format"]);
+      auto dtype = to_zarr_dtype(field["format"], version);
       if (!dtype.status().ok()) {
         return dtype.status();
       }
       dtypeFields.emplace_back(nlohmann::json{field["name"], dtype.value()});
     }
-    variable["metadata"]["dtype"] = dtypeFields;
+    variable["metadata"][dtype_key] = dtypeFields;
   } else {
-    auto dtype = to_zarr_dtype(input["dataType"]);
+    auto dtype = to_zarr_dtype(input["dataType"], version);
     if (!dtype.status().ok()) {
       return dtype.status();
     }
-    variable["metadata"]["dtype"] = dtype.value();
+    variable["metadata"][dtype_key] = dtype.value();
   }
   return absl::OkStatus();
 }
@@ -121,52 +109,106 @@ inline absl::Status transform_dtype(nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/,
  * Variable specs It will modify with side-effect on "input"
  * @param input A MDIO Variable spec
  * @param variable A Variable stub (Will be modified)
+ * @param version The Zarr version to target (defaults to V2)
  * @return OkStatus if successful, InvalidArgumentError if compressor is invalid
  * for MDIO
  */
-inline absl::Status transform_compressor(nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/,
-                                         nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/) {
-  if (input.contains("compressor")) {
-    if (input["compressor"].contains("name")) {
-      if (input["compressor"]["name"] != "blosc") {
+inline absl::Status transform_compressor(
+    nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/, nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+    // V3 uses codec pipeline
+    if (input.contains("compressor")) {
+      if (!input["compressor"].contains("name") ||
+          input["compressor"]["name"] != "blosc") {
         return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Only blosc compressor is supported");
       }
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["id"] = input["compressor"]["name"];
-    } else {
-      return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Compressor name must be specified");
-    }
 
-    if (input["compressor"].contains("algorithm")) {
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["cname"] =
-          input["compressor"]["algorithm"];
-    } else {  // DEFAULT
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["cname"] = "lz4";
-    }
-    if (input["compressor"].contains("level")) {
-      if (input["compressor"]["level"] > 9 ||
-          input["compressor"]["level"] < 0) {
-        return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
-            "Compressor level must be between 0 and 9");
+      nlohmann::json blosc_codec = {{"name", "blosc"}};
+      blosc_codec["configuration"] = nlohmann::json::object();
+
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("algorithm")) {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["cname"] =
+            input["compressor"]["algorithm"];
+      } else {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["cname"] = "lz4";
       }
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["clevel"] =
-          input["compressor"]["level"];
-    } else {  // DEFAULT
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["clevel"] = 5;
-    }
-    if (input["compressor"].contains("shuffle")) {
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["shuffle"] =
-          input["compressor"]["shuffle"];
-    } else {  // DEFAULT
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["shuffle"] = 1;
-    }
-    if (input["compressor"].contains("blocksize")) {
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["blocksize"] =
-          input["compressor"]["blocksize"];
-    } else {  // DEFAULT
-      variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["blocksize"] = 0;
+
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("level")) {
+        if (input["compressor"]["level"] > 9 ||
+            input["compressor"]["level"] < 0) {
+          return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+              "Compressor level must be between 0 and 9");
+        }
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["clevel"] = input["compressor"]["level"];
+      } else {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["clevel"] = 5;
+      }
+
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("shuffle")) {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["shuffle"] =
+            input["compressor"]["shuffle"];
+      } else {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["shuffle"] = "shuffle";
+      }
+
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("blocksize")) {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["blocksize"] =
+            input["compressor"]["blocksize"];
+      } else {
+        blosc_codec["configuration"]["blocksize"] = 0;
+      }
+
+      // V3 uses a codec array: bytes first, then compression
+      variable["metadata"]["codecs"] =
+          nlohmann::json::array({{{"name", "bytes"}}, blosc_codec});
     }
+    // If no compressor, use default bytes codec (already in stub)
   } else {
-    variable["metadata"]["compressor"] = nullptr;
+    // V2 uses compressor object
+    if (input.contains("compressor")) {
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("name")) {
+        if (input["compressor"]["name"] != "blosc") {
+          return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+              "Only blosc compressor is supported");
+        }
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["id"] = input["compressor"]["name"];
+      } else {
+        return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Compressor name must be specified");
+      }
+
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("algorithm")) {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["cname"] =
+            input["compressor"]["algorithm"];
+      } else {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["cname"] = "lz4";
+      }
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("level")) {
+        if (input["compressor"]["level"] > 9 ||
+            input["compressor"]["level"] < 0) {
+          return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+              "Compressor level must be between 0 and 9");
+        }
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["clevel"] =
+            input["compressor"]["level"];
+      } else {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["clevel"] = 5;
+      }
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("shuffle")) {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["shuffle"] =
+            input["compressor"]["shuffle"];
+      } else {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["shuffle"] = 1;
+      }
+      if (input["compressor"].contains("blocksize")) {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["blocksize"] =
+            input["compressor"]["blocksize"];
+      } else {
+        variable["metadata"]["compressor"]["blocksize"] = 0;
+      }
+    } else {
+      variable["metadata"]["compressor"] = nullptr;
+    }
   }
   return absl::OkStatus();
 }
@@ -178,26 +220,26 @@ inline absl::Status transform_compressor(nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/,
  * @param input A MDIO Variable spec
  * @param variable A Variable stub (Will be modified)
  * @param dimensionMap A map of dimension names to sizes
+ * @param version The Zarr version to target (defaults to V2)
  * @return void -- Can only be successful because validation must always pass
  * before this step This presumes that the user does not attempt to use these
  * functions directly
  */
 inline void transform_shape(
     nlohmann::json& input /*NOLINT*/, nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/,
-    std::unordered_map<std::string, uint64_t>& dimensionMap /*NOLINT*/) {
+    std::unordered_map<std::string, uint64_t>& dimensionMap /*NOLINT*/,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  nlohmann::json shape = nlohmann::json::array();
   if (input["dimensions"][0].is_object()) {
-    nlohmann::json shape = nlohmann::json::array();
     for (auto& dimension : input["dimensions"]) {
       shape.emplace_back(dimensionMap[dimension["name"]]);
     }
-    variable["metadata"]["shape"] = shape;
   } else {
-    nlohmann::json shape = nlohmann::json::array();
     for (auto& dimension : input["dimensions"]) {
       shape.emplace_back(dimensionMap[dimension]);
     }
-    variable["metadata"]["shape"] = shape;
   }
+  variable["metadata"]["shape"] = shape;
 }
 
 /**
@@ -210,44 +252,26 @@ inline void transform_shape(
  */
 inline absl::Status transform_metadata(const std::string& path,
                                        nlohmann::json& variable /*NOLINT*/) {
-  std::string bucket =
-      "NULL";  // Default value, if is NULL don't add a bucket field
-  std::string driver = "file";
-  if (absl::StartsWith(path, "gs://")) {
-    driver = "gcs";
-  } else if (absl::StartsWith(path, "s3://")) {
-    driver = "s3";
-  }
+  // Use shared utilities for driver inference and path handling
+  std::string driver = mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath(path);
+  std::string var_name = variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
 
-  std::string filepath;
+  variable["kvstore"]["driver"] = driver;
 
-  if (driver != "file") {
-    std::string _path = path;
-    // Ensure _path has a trailing slash or the mdio file will not be created
-    // properly
-    if (_path.back() != '/') {
-      _path += '/';
-    }
-    _path = _path.substr(5);
-    std::vector<std::string> file_parts = absl::StrSplit(_path, '/');
-    if (file_parts.size() < 2) {
+  if (driver == "file") {
+    // Local filesystem - normalize path with trailing slash
+    variable["kvstore"]["path"] =
+        mdio::zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash(path) + var_name;
+  } else {
+    // Cloud storage (GCS or S3) - extract bucket and path
+    auto [bucket, cloud_path] = mdio::zarr::ExtractCloudPath(path);
+    if (bucket.empty()) {
       return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
           "Cloud path requires [gs/s3]://[bucket]/[path to file] name");
     }
-    bucket = file_parts[0];
-    filepath = file_parts[1];
-    for (std::size_t i = 2; i < file_parts.size(); ++i) {
-      filepath += "/" + file_parts[i];
-    }
-    filepath += variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
-  } else {
-    filepath = path + "/";
-    filepath += variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
-  }
-  variable["kvstore"]["path"] = filepath;
-  variable["kvstore"]["driver"] = driver;
-  if (bucket != "NULL") {
     variable["kvstore"]["bucket"] = bucket;
+    variable["kvstore"]["path"] =
+        mdio::zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash(cloud_path) + var_name;
   }
 
   return absl::OkStatus();
@@ -259,13 +283,49 @@ inline absl::Status transform_metadata(const std::string& path,
  * formatting Variable specs
  * @param json A MDIO Dataset Variable list element
  * @param dimensionMap A map of dimension names to sizes
+ * @param path The path for the variable
+ * @param version The Zarr version to use (defaults to V2)
  * @return A Variable spec or an error if the Variable spec is invalid
  */
 inline tensorstore::Result<nlohmann::json> from_json_to_spec(
     nlohmann::json& json /*NOLINT*/,
     std::unordered_map<std::string, uint64_t>& dimensionMap /*NOLINT*/,
-    const std::string& path) {
-  nlohmann::json variableStub = R"(
+    const std::string& path,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  nlohmann::json variableStub;
+
+  if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+    // Zarr V3 spec structure
+    variableStub = R"(
+        {
+            "driver": "zarr3",
+            "kvstore": {
+                "driver": "file",
+                "path": "VARIABLE_NAME"
+            },
+            "metadata": {
+                "data_type": "DATA_TYPE",
+                "shape": [],
+                "chunk_grid": {
+                    "name": "regular",
+                    "configuration": {
+                        "chunk_shape": []
+                    }
+                },
+                "chunk_key_encoding": {
+                    "name": "default",
+                    "configuration": {
+                        "separator": "/"
+                    }
+                },
+                "codecs": [{"name": "bytes"}]
+            },
+            "attributes": {}
+        }
+    )"_json;
+  } else {
+    // Zarr V2 spec structure
+    variableStub = R"(
         {
             "driver": "zarr",
             "kvstore": {
@@ -281,54 +341,95 @@ inline tensorstore::Result<nlohmann::json> from_json_to_spec(
             "attributes": {}
         }
     )"_json;
+  }
   variableStub["kvstore"]["path"] = json["name"];
 
-  auto transformStatus = transform_dtype(json, variableStub);
+  auto transformStatus = transform_dtype(json, variableStub, version);
   if (!transformStatus.ok()) {
     return transformStatus;
   }
 
-  auto compressorStatus = transform_compressor(json, variableStub);
+  auto compressorStatus = transform_compressor(json, variableStub, version);
   if (!compressorStatus.ok()) {
     return compressorStatus;
   }
 
-  transform_shape(json, variableStub, dimensionMap);
+  transform_shape(json, variableStub, dimensionMap, version);
 
   if (json.contains("metadata")) {
+    nlohmann::json chunkShape;
     if (json["metadata"].contains("chunkGrid")) {
-      variableStub["metadata"]["chunks"] =
-          json["metadata"]["chunkGrid"]["configuration"]["chunkShape"];
-    } else {  // No chunking specified
-      variableStub["metadata"]["chunks"] = variableStub["metadata"]["shape"];
+      chunkShape = json["metadata"]["chunkGrid"]["configuration"]["chunkShape"];
+    } else {
+      chunkShape = variableStub["metadata"]["shape"];
+    }
+
+    if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      // V3 uses chunk_grid
+      variableStub["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["configuration"]["chunk_shape"] =
+          chunkShape;
+    } else {
+      // V2 uses chunks
+      variableStub["metadata"]["chunks"] = chunkShape;
     }
 
     if (!json["dataType"].contains("fields")) {
+      std::string dtype_str = json["dataType"].get<std::string>();
       variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = nlohmann::json::value_t::null;
-      if (json["dataType"] == "complex64") {
+      if (dtype_str == "complex64") {
         std::string raw(8, '\0');
-        variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = encode_base64(raw);
-      } else if (json["dataType"] == "complex128") {
+        if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+          variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = encode_base64(raw);
+        }
+        // V3 handles complex fill values differently
+      } else if (dtype_str == "complex128") {
         std::string raw(16, '\0');
-        variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = encode_base64(raw);
-      } else if (json["dataType"].get<std::string>()[0] == 'f') {
+        if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+          variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = encode_base64(raw);
+        }
+      } else if (!dtype_str.empty() && dtype_str[0] == 'f') {
         variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = std::nan("");
+      } else if (dtype_str == "bool") {
+        variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = false;
+      } else {
+        variableStub["metadata"]["fill_value"] = 0;
       }
     } else {
+      // Structured dtypes for both V2 and V3
       // Accumulate the total number of bytes (N)
       uint16_t num_bytes = 0;
-      // We're going to use the variable dtype because it's already in byte
-      // format
-      std::string dtype;
-      for (auto field : variableStub["metadata"]["dtype"]) {
-        dtype = field[1].get<std::string>();
-        if (dtype.at(1) != 'c') {
-          num_bytes += std::stoi(dtype.substr(2));
-        } else {  // Complex
-          if (dtype.at(2) == '8') {
-            num_bytes += 8;
+      std::string dtype_key =
+          version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "data_type" : "dtype";
+      for (const auto& field : variableStub["metadata"][dtype_key]) {
+        std::string dtype = field[1].get<std::string>();
+        if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+          // V2 format: "<i2", "<f4", "<c8", etc. - number is byte size
+          if (dtype.at(1) != 'c') {
+            num_bytes += std::stoi(dtype.substr(2));
           } else {
-            num_bytes += 16;
+            // Complex types: c8 = 8 bytes, c16 = 16 bytes
+            if (dtype.at(2) == '8') {
+              num_bytes += 8;
+            } else {
+              num_bytes += 16;
+            }
+          }
+        } else {
+          // V3 format: "int16", "float32", "complex64", etc. - number is bit
+          // size
+          if (dtype.find("complex") == 0) {
+            // complex64 = 8 bytes, complex128 = 16 bytes
+            int bits = std::stoi(dtype.substr(7));
+            num_bytes += bits / 8;
+          } else if (dtype == "bool") {
+            num_bytes += 1;
+          } else {
+            // Extract the number from the end (int16 -> 16, float32 -> 32)
+            size_t pos = dtype.find_first_of("0123456789");
+            if (pos != std::string::npos) {
+              int bits = std::stoi(dtype.substr(pos));
+              num_bytes += bits / 8;
+            }
           }
         }
       }
@@ -337,8 +438,14 @@ inline tensorstore::Result<nlohmann::json> from_json_to_spec(
     }
 
     variableStub["attributes"]["metadata"] = json["metadata"];
-  } else {  // No metadata supplied means no chunkGrid
-    variableStub["metadata"]["chunks"] = variableStub["metadata"]["shape"];
+  } else {
+    // No metadata supplied means no chunkGrid
+    if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      variableStub["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["configuration"]["chunk_shape"] =
+          variableStub["metadata"]["shape"];
+    } else {
+      variableStub["metadata"]["chunks"] = variableStub["metadata"]["shape"];
+    }
   }
 
   auto transform_result = transform_metadata(path, variableStub);
@@ -436,11 +543,26 @@ get_dimensions(nlohmann::json& spec /*NOLINT*/) {
  * This should be the only function called by the user to construct a Dataset
  * from a spec
  * @param spec A Dataset spec
+ * @param path The path for the dataset
+ * @param version Optional Zarr version to use. If not specified, auto-detects
+ *                from spec's "zarr_version" field, defaulting to V2.
  * @return A vector of Variable specs or an error if the Dataset spec is invalid
  */
 inline tensorstore::Result<
     std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>>>
-Construct(nlohmann::json& spec /*NOLINT*/, const std::string& path) {
+Construct(nlohmann::json& spec /*NOLINT*/, const std::string& path,
+          std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> version = std::nullopt) {
+  // Determine the version to use
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2;
+  if (version.has_value()) {
+    zarr_version = version.value();
+  } else if (spec.contains("zarr_version")) {
+    auto version_result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(spec["zarr_version"]);
+    if (version_result.ok()) {
+      zarr_version = version_result.value();
+    }
+  }
+
   // Validation should only return status codes. If it returns data then it
   // should be a "constructor"
   auto status = validate_dataset(spec);
@@ -459,7 +581,8 @@ Construct(nlohmann::json& spec /*NOLINT*/, const std::string& path) {
 
   std::vector<nlohmann::json> datasetSpec;
   for (auto& variable : spec["variables"]) {
-    auto variableSpec = from_json_to_spec(variable, dimensionMap, path);
+    auto variableSpec =
+        from_json_to_spec(variable, dimensionMap, path, zarr_version);
     if (!variableSpec.status().ok()) {
       return variableSpec.status();
     }
diff --git a/mdio/dataset_factory_test.cc b/mdio/dataset_factory_test.cc
index 1baf703..9e3c16a 100644
--- a/mdio/dataset_factory_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/dataset_factory_test.cc
@@ -646,4 +646,181 @@ TEST(Xarray, open) {
   }
 }
 
+TEST(EncodeBase64, basicEncoding) {
+  std::string input = "Hello, World!";
+  std::string encoded = encode_base64(input);
+  EXPECT_EQ(encoded, "SGVsbG8sIFdvcmxkIQ==");
+}
+
+TEST(EncodeBase64, emptyString) {
+  std::string input = "";
+  std::string encoded = encode_base64(input);
+  EXPECT_EQ(encoded, "");
+}
+
+TEST(EncodeBase64, binaryData) {
+  // Test with null bytes (as used for fill_value encoding)
+  std::string input(8, '\0');
+  std::string encoded = encode_base64(input);
+  EXPECT_EQ(encoded, "AAAAAAAAAAA=");
+}
+
+TEST(ToZarrDtype, unknownDtype) {
+  auto result = to_zarr_dtype("unknown_dtype");
+  ASSERT_FALSE(result.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(), testing::HasSubstr("Unknown dtype"));
+}
+
+TEST(ToZarrDtype, validDtypes) {
+  EXPECT_TRUE(to_zarr_dtype("float32").status().ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(to_zarr_dtype("float64").status().ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(to_zarr_dtype("int32").status().ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(to_zarr_dtype("uint16").status().ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(to_zarr_dtype("bool").status().ok());
+}
+
+TEST(TransformCompressor, nonBloscCompressorV2) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"compressor", {{"name", "gzip"}}}};
+  nlohmann::json variable = {{"metadata", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  auto status =
+      transform_compressor(input, variable, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(status.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(status.message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Only blosc compressor is supported"));
+}
+
+TEST(TransformCompressor, nonBloscCompressorV3) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"compressor", {{"name", "gzip"}}}};
+  nlohmann::json variable = {{"metadata", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  auto status =
+      transform_compressor(input, variable, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(status.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(status.message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Only blosc compressor is supported"));
+}
+
+TEST(TransformCompressor, missingCompressorName) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"compressor", {{"algorithm", "zstd"}}}};
+  nlohmann::json variable = {{"metadata", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  auto status =
+      transform_compressor(input, variable, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(status.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(status.message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Compressor name must be specified"));
+}
+
+TEST(TransformCompressor, noCompressorV2) {
+  nlohmann::json input = nlohmann::json::object();
+  nlohmann::json variable = {{"metadata", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  auto status =
+      transform_compressor(input, variable, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(status.ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(variable["metadata"]["compressor"].is_null());
+}
+
+TEST(TransformMetadata, gcsPath) {
+  nlohmann::json variable = {
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", "file"}, {"path", "myvar"}}}};
+  auto status = transform_metadata("gs://my-bucket/path/to/dataset", variable);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(status.ok()) << status;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable["kvstore"]["driver"], "gcs");
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable["kvstore"]["bucket"], "my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_THAT(variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("path/to/dataset"));
+}
+
+TEST(TransformMetadata, s3Path) {
+  nlohmann::json variable = {
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", "file"}, {"path", "myvar"}}}};
+  auto status = transform_metadata("s3://my-bucket/path/to/dataset", variable);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(status.ok()) << status;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable["kvstore"]["driver"], "s3");
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable["kvstore"]["bucket"], "my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_THAT(variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("path/to/dataset"));
+}
+
+TEST(TransformMetadata, localPath) {
+  nlohmann::json variable = {
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", "file"}, {"path", "myvar"}}}};
+  auto status = transform_metadata("/local/path/to/dataset", variable);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(status.ok()) << status;
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable["kvstore"]["driver"], "file");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(variable["kvstore"].contains("bucket"));
+  EXPECT_THAT(variable["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("/local/path/to/dataset"));
+}
+
+TEST(GetDimensions, conflictingSizes) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = R"({
+    "variables": [
+      {
+        "name": "var1",
+        "dimensions": [
+          {"name": "x", "size": 100}
+        ]
+      },
+      {
+        "name": "var2",
+        "dimensions": [
+          {"name": "x", "size": 200}
+        ]
+      }
+    ]
+  })"_json;
+  auto result = get_dimensions(spec);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(result.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("conflicting sizes"));
+}
+
+TEST(GetDimensions, consistentSizes) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = R"({
+    "variables": [
+      {
+        "name": "var1",
+        "dimensions": [
+          {"name": "x", "size": 100},
+          {"name": "y", "size": 50}
+        ]
+      },
+      {
+        "name": "var2",
+        "dimensions": [
+          {"name": "x", "size": 100}
+        ]
+      }
+    ]
+  })"_json;
+  auto result = get_dimensions(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.status().ok()) << result.status();
+  auto dims = result.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(dims["x"], 100);
+  EXPECT_EQ(dims["y"], 50);
+}
+
+TEST(Construct, explicitV3Version) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  auto res = Construct(j, "zarrs/v3_dataset", mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+
+  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(res.value());
+  // All variables should use zarr3 driver
+  for (const auto& variable : variables) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(variable["driver"], "zarr3");
+  }
+}
+
+TEST(Construct, explicitV2Version) {
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(manifest);
+  auto res = Construct(j, "zarrs/v2_dataset", mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+
+  std::vector<nlohmann::json> variables = std::get<1>(res.value());
+  // All variables should use zarr driver (V2)
+  for (const auto& variable : variables) {
+    EXPECT_EQ(variable["driver"], "zarr");
+  }
+}
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/dataset_test.cc b/mdio/dataset_test.cc
index 2ddbc41..35c41d4 100644
--- a/mdio/dataset_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/dataset_test.cc
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@
 #include <vector>
 
 #include "mdio/dataset_factory.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/driver.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/registry.h"
 #include "tensorstore/index_space/dim_expression.h"
@@ -40,6 +41,137 @@
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
 // clang-format on
 namespace {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarrs/dataset_test_v3"
+                                                 : "zarrs/dataset_test";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a schema without struct arrays (compatible with both V2 and
+ * V3).
+ */
+::nlohmann::json GetSimpleSchema() {
+  std::string schema = R"(
+    {
+      "metadata": {
+        "name": "simple_dataset",
+        "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+        "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+        "attributes": {
+          "foo": "bar"
+        }
+      },
+      "variables": [
+        {
+          "name": "image",
+          "dataType": "float32",
+          "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+            {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+          ],
+          "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+              "name": "regular",
+              "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "statsV1": {
+              "count": 100,
+              "sum": 1215.1,
+              "sumSquares": 125.12,
+              "min": 5.61,
+              "max": 10.84,
+              "histogram": {"binCenters": [1, 2], "counts": [10, 15]}
+            }
+          },
+          "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+          "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "velocity",
+          "dataType": "float16",
+          "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+          "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+              "name": "regular",
+              "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+          },
+          "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "image_inline",
+          "dataType": "float32",
+          "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+          "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+          "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+          "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+              "name": "regular",
+              "configuration": { "chunkShape": [4, 512, 512] }
+            }
+          },
+          "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "inline",
+          "dataType": "uint32",
+          "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "crossline",
+          "dataType": "uint32",
+          "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "depth",
+          "dataType": "uint32",
+          "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+          "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+          }
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "cdp-x",
+          "dataType": "float32",
+          "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+          ],
+          "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+          }
+        },
+        {
+          "name": "cdp-y",
+          "dataType": "float32",
+          "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+          ],
+          "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+          }
+        }
+      ]
+    }
+  )";
+  return ::nlohmann::json::parse(schema);
+}
+
+// V2-only schema with struct arrays (for backward compatibility tests)
 ::nlohmann::json GetToyExample() {
   std::string schema = R"(
         {
@@ -1389,4 +1521,269 @@ TEST(Dataset, mockV0) {
       << reopenedDsFut.value();
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Dataset Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class DatasetVersionTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, fromJson) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(ds.getMetadata()["name"], "simple_dataset") << ds.getMetadata();
+
+  // Verify variables were created (8 variables without struct array)
+  std::vector<std::string> varList = ds.variables.get_keys();
+  EXPECT_EQ(varList.size(), 8) << "Expected 8 variables";
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, fromJsonWithOptionalVersion) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(
+      json_vars, base_path_, std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>(version_),
+      mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(dataset.value().getMetadata()["name"], "simple_dataset");
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, readWrite) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto ds = datasetRes.value();
+
+  // Get the image variable and write some values
+  auto imageVarRes = ds.variables.get<mdio::dtypes::float32_t>("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
+  auto imageVar = imageVarRes.value();
+
+  auto imageDataRes = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageDataRes.status().ok()) << imageDataRes.status();
+  auto imageData = imageDataRes.value();
+
+  auto accessor = imageData.get_data_accessor().data();
+  accessor[0] = 1.5f;
+  accessor[1] = 2.5f;
+  accessor[100] = 42.0f;
+
+  auto writeFut = imageVar.Write(imageData);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(writeFut.status().ok()) << writeFut.status();
+
+  // Re-read and verify
+  auto rereadFut = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(rereadFut.status().ok()) << rereadFut.status();
+  auto rereadData = rereadFut.value();
+  auto rereadAccessor = rereadData.get_data_accessor().data();
+
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[0], 1.5f);
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[1], 2.5f);
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[100], 42.0f);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, isel) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto ds = datasetRes.value();
+
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc1 = {"inline", 0, 10, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc2 = {"crossline", 5, 20, 1};
+  auto sliceRes = ds.isel(desc1, desc2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(sliceRes.status().ok()) << sliceRes.status();
+
+  auto slice = sliceRes.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(slice.domain.rank(), 3);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, openExisting) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+
+  // Close and reopen
+  auto reopenedDs = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(reopenedDs.status().ok()) << reopenedDs.status();
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(reopenedDs.value().getMetadata()["name"], "simple_dataset");
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, coordinates) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.value().coordinates.size() > 0)
+      << "Dataset expected to have coordinates but none were present!";
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, getIntervals) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto datasetFut = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetFut.status().ok()) << datasetFut.status();
+  auto dataset = datasetFut.value();
+  auto intervalRes = dataset.get_intervals();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(intervalRes.ok()) << intervalRes.status();
+  auto intervals = intervalRes.value();
+  EXPECT_GE(intervals.size(), 3);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DatasetVersionTest, commitMetadata) {
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+  auto datasetRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, base_path_, version_,
+                                             mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto dataset = datasetRes.value();
+
+  auto imageRes = dataset.variables.at("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageRes.ok()) << imageRes.status();
+  auto image = imageRes.value();
+
+  auto attrs = image.GetAttributes();
+  attrs["statsV1"]["histogram"]["binCenters"] = {2, 4, 6};
+  attrs["statsV1"]["histogram"]["counts"] = {10, 15, 20};
+  auto attrsUpdateRes = image.UpdateAttributes<float>(attrs);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(attrsUpdateRes.status().ok()) << attrsUpdateRes.status();
+
+  auto commitRes = dataset.CommitMetadata();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(commitRes.status().ok()) << commitRes.status();
+
+  auto newDataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(newDataset.status().ok()) << newDataset.status();
+
+  auto newImageRes = newDataset.value().variables.at("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(newImageRes.ok()) << newImageRes.status();
+
+  nlohmann::json metadata = newImageRes.value().getMetadata();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(metadata.contains("metadata")) << metadata;
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, DatasetVersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
+// Test nullopt version (should default to V2)
+TEST(DatasetVersionNullopt, fromJsonWithNulloptVersion) {
+  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/nullopt_version");
+  auto json_vars = GetSimpleSchema();
+
+  std::optional<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> version = std::nullopt;
+  auto dataset =
+      mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, "zarrs/nullopt_version", version,
+                               mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(dataset.value().getMetadata()["name"], "simple_dataset");
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all("zarrs/nullopt_version");
+}
+
+TEST(Dataset, iselWithEmptySlicesVector) {
+  auto json_vars = GetToyExample();
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, "zarrs/acceptance",
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+
+  std::vector<mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index>> emptySlices;
+  auto sliceRes = ds.isel(emptySlices);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(sliceRes.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(sliceRes.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("No slices provided"));
+}
+
+TEST(Dataset, selWithDimensionIndex) {
+  std::string path = "zarrs/selTester.mdio";
+  auto dsRes = makePopulated(path);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.ok()) << dsRes.status();
+  auto ds = dsRes.value();
+
+  // Using an index instead of a dimension name should fail
+  // The RangeDescriptor with index 0 instead of "inline"
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::dtypes::int32_t> indexDesc = {0, 2, 5, 1};
+
+  auto sliceRes = ds.sel(indexDesc);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(sliceRes.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(sliceRes.status().message(), testing::HasSubstr("not found"));
+}
+
+TEST(Dataset, selWithRepeatedLabels) {
+  std::string path = "zarrs/selTester.mdio";
+  auto dsRes = makePopulated(path);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.ok()) << dsRes.status();
+  auto ds = dsRes.value();
+
+  // Using the same label twice is invalid
+  mdio::ValueDescriptor<mdio::dtypes::int32_t> desc1 = {"inline", 1};
+  mdio::ValueDescriptor<mdio::dtypes::int32_t> desc2 = {"inline", 2};
+
+  auto sliceRes = ds.sel(desc1, desc2);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(sliceRes.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(sliceRes.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("not be repeated"));
+}
+
+TEST(Dataset, commitMetadataNoChanges) {
+  const std::string path = "zarrs/acceptance_no_commit";
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(path);
+  auto json_vars = GetToyExample();
+
+  auto datasetRes =
+      mdio::Dataset::from_json(json_vars, path, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(datasetRes.status().ok()) << datasetRes.status();
+  auto dataset = datasetRes.value();
+
+  auto commitRes = dataset.CommitMetadata();
+  ASSERT_FALSE(commitRes.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(commitRes.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("No variables were modified"));
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(path);
+}
+
+TEST(Dataset, selRangeWithSameStartStop) {
+  std::string path = "zarrs/selTester.mdio";
+  auto dsRes = makePopulated(path);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.ok()) << dsRes.status();
+  auto ds = dsRes.value();
+
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::dtypes::int32_t> rangeDesc = {"inline", 2, 2, 1};
+
+  auto sliceRes = ds.sel(rangeDesc);
+  ASSERT_FALSE(sliceRes.status().ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(sliceRes.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Start and stop values must be different"));
+}
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/gcs_test.cc b/mdio/gcs_test.cc
index cd89d2f..28506c5 100644
--- a/mdio/gcs_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/gcs_test.cc
@@ -16,13 +16,150 @@
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 
 #include "mdio/dataset.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 
 namespace {
 
 // TODO(End user): User should point to their own GCS bucket here.
 // You may find the test dataset at: TODO: Upload the test dataset to a public
 // object store
-/*NOLINT*/ std::string const GCS_PATH = "gs://USER_BUCKET";
+/*NOLINT*/ std::string const GCS_PATH = "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing";
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the GCS path suffix for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetGcsPathSuffix(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "/test_v3" : "/test_v2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the manifest without struct arrays (compatible with both V2
+ * and V3).
+ */
+std::string GetSimpleManifest() {
+  return R"(
+{
+    "metadata": {
+        "name": "campos_3d",
+        "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+        "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+        "attributes": {
+            "textHeader": [
+                "C01 .......................... ",
+                "C02 .......................... ",
+                "C03 .......................... "
+            ],
+            "foo": "bar"
+        }
+    },
+    "variables": [
+    {
+        "name": "image",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+            {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "statsV1": {
+            "count": 100,
+            "sum": 1215.1,
+            "sumSquares": 125.12,
+            "min": 5.61,
+            "max": 10.84,
+            "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
+            },
+            "attributes": {
+                "fizz": "buzz"
+            }
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+        "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "velocity",
+        "dataType": "float64",
+        "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "image_inline",
+        "dataType": "int16",
+        "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+        "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+        "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            }
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "inline",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "crossline",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "depth",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "cdp-x",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "cdp-y",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    }]
+}
+)";
+}
+
+// V2-only manifest with struct arrays
 
 /*NOLINT*/ std::string const fullToyManifest = R"(
 {
@@ -158,7 +295,7 @@ namespace {
 )";
 
 TEST(GCS, create) {
-  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "gcs_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -169,7 +306,7 @@ TEST(GCS, create) {
 }
 
 TEST(GCS, open) {
-  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "gcs_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -182,7 +319,7 @@ TEST(GCS, open) {
 }
 
 TEST(GCS, write) {
-  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "gcs_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -284,7 +421,7 @@ TEST(GCS, write) {
 }
 
 TEST(GCS, read) {
-  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "gcs_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -303,4 +440,95 @@ TEST(GCS, read) {
   ASSERT_TRUE(future.status().ok()) << future.status();
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized GCS Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class GCSVersionTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    test_path_ = GCS_PATH + GetGcsPathSuffix(version_);
+  }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string test_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(GCSVersionTest, create) {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "gcs_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+}
+
+TEST_P(GCSVersionTest, open) {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "gcs_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  // First create the dataset
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto createRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                            mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(createRes.status().ok()) << createRes.status();
+
+  // Then open it
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+}
+
+TEST_P(GCSVersionTest, readWrite) {
+  if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the GCS_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "gcs_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto createRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                            mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(createRes.status().ok()) << createRes.status();
+
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+
+  // Read and write to the image variable
+  auto imageVarRes = ds.variables.get<mdio::dtypes::float32_t>("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
+  auto imageVar = imageVarRes.value();
+
+  auto imageDataRes = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageDataRes.status().ok()) << imageDataRes.status();
+  auto imageData = imageDataRes.value();
+
+  auto accessor = imageData.get_data_accessor().data();
+  accessor[0] = 3.14f;
+  accessor[1] = 2.71f;
+
+  auto writeFut = imageVar.Write(imageData);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(writeFut.status().ok()) << writeFut.status();
+
+  // Re-read and verify
+  auto rereadRes = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(rereadRes.status().ok()) << rereadRes.status();
+  auto rereadAccessor = rereadRes.value().get_data_accessor().data();
+
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[0], 3.14f);
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[1], 2.71f);
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, GCSVersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/header_variable.h b/mdio/header_variable.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c52fff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/header_variable.h
@@ -0,0 +1,481 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#ifndef MDIO_HEADER_VARIABLE_H_
+#define MDIO_HEADER_VARIABLE_H_
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <memory>
+#include <string>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "absl/strings/str_split.h"
+#include "mdio/impl.h"
+#include "mdio/stats.h"
+#include "mdio/variable.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
+#include "tensorstore/index_space/index_domain_builder.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/operations.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+
+// clang-format off
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
+// clang-format on
+
+namespace mdio {
+
+namespace internal {
+
+inline bool IsHeaderOnlySpec(const ::nlohmann::json& spec) {
+  return spec.contains("_mdio_header_only") &&
+         spec["_mdio_header_only"].get<bool>();
+}
+
+inline std::string VariableNameFromKvstorePath(const std::string& path) {
+  std::vector<std::string> path_components = absl::StrSplit(path, '/');
+  return path_components.back();
+}
+
+inline Result<tensorstore::IndexDomain<>> BuildDomainFromShapeAndLabels(
+    const std::vector<Index>& shape,
+    const std::vector<std::string>& labels) {
+  tensorstore::IndexDomainBuilder<> builder(shape.size());
+  if (!shape.empty()) {
+    builder.shape(shape);
+  }
+  if (!labels.empty()) {
+    if (labels.size() != shape.size()) {
+      return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+          "dimension label count does not match shape rank");
+    }
+    builder.labels(labels);
+  }
+  return builder.Finalize();
+}
+
+inline std::vector<std::string> ExtractDimensionLabels(
+    const ::nlohmann::json& array_metadata,
+    const ::nlohmann::json& attrs) {
+  if (array_metadata.contains("dimension_names") &&
+      array_metadata["dimension_names"].is_array()) {
+    std::vector<std::string> labels;
+    for (const auto& dim : array_metadata["dimension_names"]) {
+      labels.push_back(dim.get<std::string>());
+    }
+    return labels;
+  }
+  if (attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS") &&
+      attrs["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"].is_array()) {
+    std::vector<std::string> labels;
+    for (const auto& dim : attrs["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"]) {
+      labels.push_back(dim.get<std::string>());
+    }
+    return labels;
+  }
+  if (attrs.contains("dimension_names") &&
+      attrs["dimension_names"].is_array()) {
+    std::vector<std::string> labels;
+    for (const auto& dim : attrs["dimension_names"]) {
+      labels.push_back(dim.get<std::string>());
+    }
+    return labels;
+  }
+  return {};
+}
+
+}  // namespace internal
+
+/**
+ * @brief A metadata-only variable whose content lives in Zarr attributes.
+ *
+ * Header variables (e.g. the SEG-Y file header) use string/bytes/datetime Zarr
+ * dtypes that TensorStore cannot open as arrays. They are surfaced in a Dataset
+ * for inspection and attribute updates, but array read/write is not supported.
+ */
+template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
+class HeaderVariable : public VariableBase {
+ public:
+  HeaderVariable() = default;
+
+  friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const HeaderVariable& obj) {
+    os << obj.get_variable_name() << "\t" << obj.dimensions() << "\n";
+    os << obj.dtypeName_ << "\t" << obj.rank();
+    return os;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Constructs a HeaderVariable from a discovery spec emitted by the Zarr
+   * layer.
+   */
+  static Result<HeaderVariable> FromSpec(const ::nlohmann::json& spec) {
+    if (!internal::IsHeaderOnlySpec(spec)) {
+      return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+          "Spec is not marked as a metadata-only header variable.");
+    }
+    if (!spec.contains("kvstore") || !spec["kvstore"].contains("path")) {
+      return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+          "Header variable spec is missing kvstore path.");
+    }
+
+    const std::string variable_name =
+        internal::VariableNameFromKvstorePath(
+            spec["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>());
+    const zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version = zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(spec);
+
+    ::nlohmann::json attrs = ::nlohmann::json::object();
+    ::nlohmann::json array_metadata = ::nlohmann::json::object();
+    std::string dtype_name;
+
+    if (zarr_version == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      if (!spec.contains("_mdio_array_metadata")) {
+        return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+            "V3 header variable spec is missing _mdio_array_metadata.");
+      }
+      array_metadata = spec["_mdio_array_metadata"];
+      if (array_metadata.contains("attributes")) {
+        attrs = array_metadata["attributes"];
+      }
+      if (array_metadata.contains("data_type")) {
+        dtype_name =
+            zarr::v3::GetDataTypeName(array_metadata["data_type"]);
+      }
+    } else {
+      if (!spec.contains("_mdio_zarray")) {
+        return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+            "V2 header variable spec is missing _mdio_zarray.");
+      }
+      array_metadata = spec["_mdio_zarray"];
+      if (spec.contains("_mdio_zattrs")) {
+        attrs = spec["_mdio_zattrs"];
+      }
+      if (array_metadata.contains("dtype") &&
+          array_metadata["dtype"].is_string()) {
+        dtype_name = array_metadata["dtype"].get<std::string>();
+      }
+    }
+
+    std::vector<Index> shape;
+    if (array_metadata.contains("shape") &&
+        array_metadata["shape"].is_array()) {
+      for (const auto& dim : array_metadata["shape"]) {
+        shape.push_back(dim.get<Index>());
+      }
+    }
+
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
+        auto domain,
+        internal::BuildDomainFromShapeAndLabels(
+            shape, internal::ExtractDimensionLabels(array_metadata, attrs)));
+
+    ::nlohmann::json metadata = attrs;
+    metadata["variable_name"] = variable_name;
+    if (metadata.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS")) {
+      metadata["dimension_names"] = metadata["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"];
+      metadata.erase("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS");
+    } else if (array_metadata.contains("dimension_names")) {
+      metadata["dimension_names"] = array_metadata["dimension_names"];
+    }
+
+    std::string long_name;
+    if (metadata.contains("long_name") &&
+        metadata["long_name"].is_string()) {
+      long_name = metadata["long_name"].get<std::string>();
+    } else {
+      long_name = variable_name;
+    }
+
+    ::nlohmann::json attrs_json = metadata;
+    if (attrs_json.contains("variable_name")) {
+      attrs_json.erase("variable_name");
+    }
+    if (attrs_json.contains("dimension_names")) {
+      attrs_json.erase("dimension_names");
+    }
+    if (attrs_json.contains("long_name")) {
+      attrs_json.erase("long_name");
+    }
+
+    ::nlohmann::json user_attrs_wrapper = ::nlohmann::json::object();
+    if (!attrs_json.empty()) {
+      user_attrs_wrapper["attributes"] = attrs_json;
+    }
+    auto attrs_res = UserAttributes::FromJson(user_attrs_wrapper);
+    if (!attrs_res.ok()) {
+      return attrs_res.status();
+    }
+
+    HeaderVariable header;
+    header.variableName = variable_name;
+    header.longName = long_name;
+    header.metadata = metadata;
+    header.domain_ = domain;
+    header.dtypeName_ = dtype_name;
+    header.kvstore_spec_ = spec["kvstore"];
+    header.zarr_version_ = zarr_version;
+    header.array_metadata_ = array_metadata;
+    if (spec.contains("_mdio_zattrs")) {
+      header.zattrs_ = spec["_mdio_zattrs"];
+    }
+    header.attributes = std::make_shared<std::shared_ptr<UserAttributes>>(
+        std::make_shared<UserAttributes>(attrs_res.value()));
+    header.attributesAddress =
+        reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**header.attributes));
+    return header;
+  }
+
+  template <ArrayOriginKind OriginKind = offset_origin>
+  Future<VariableData<T, R, OriginKind>> Read() {
+    return absl::UnimplementedError(
+        "HeaderVariable '" + variableName +
+        "' is metadata-only; array read is not supported.");
+  }
+
+  template <ArrayOriginKind OriginKind = offset_origin>
+  WriteFutures Write(const VariableData<T, R, OriginKind>& /*source*/) const {
+    return absl::UnimplementedError(
+        "HeaderVariable '" + variableName +
+        "' is metadata-only; array write is not supported.");
+  }
+
+  IndexDomainView<R> dimensions() const { return domain_; }
+
+  std::size_t rank() const { return domain_.rank(); }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Reduced metadata for a header variable.
+   *
+   * Unlike a regular Variable, the long name is meaningful for round-tripping a
+   * header variable's attributes, so it is included here.
+   */
+  const nlohmann::json getReducedMetadata() const {
+    nlohmann::json ret = metadata;
+    ret["long_name"] = longName;
+    return ret;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Builds the flat attribute blob to persist for this header variable.
+   *
+   * The live user attributes are the source of truth. Structural keys that
+   * live alongside the user attributes on disk (e.g. _ARRAY_DIMENSIONS) are
+   * re-injected from the original on-disk attributes so the round-trip is
+   * lossless.
+   */
+  nlohmann::json BuildPublishAttrs() const {
+    nlohmann::json attrs = nlohmann::json::object();
+    auto user_attrs = GetAttributes();
+    if (user_attrs.contains("attributes")) {
+      attrs = user_attrs["attributes"];
+    }
+
+    const nlohmann::json& original =
+        (zattrs_.is_object() && !zattrs_.empty())
+            ? zattrs_
+            : (array_metadata_.contains("attributes")
+                   ? array_metadata_["attributes"]
+                   : nlohmann::json::object());
+    if (original.is_object() && original.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS") &&
+        !attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS")) {
+      attrs["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = original["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"];
+    }
+    return attrs;
+  }
+
+  Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> PublishMetadata() {
+    auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+        tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>::Make();
+
+    auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore_spec_);
+    kvs_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+        [promise = std::move(pair.promise), zarr_version = zarr_version_,
+         attrs_to_write = BuildPublishAttrs(),
+         this](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> ready_kvs) mutable {
+          if (!ready_kvs.result().ok()) {
+            promise.SetResult(ready_kvs.result().status());
+            return;
+          }
+
+          if (zarr_version == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+            auto read_future =
+                tensorstore::kvstore::Read(ready_kvs.value(), "/zarr.json");
+            read_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+                [promise = std::move(promise),
+                 attrs_to_write = std::move(attrs_to_write),
+                 kvs = ready_kvs.value(), this](
+                    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+                        ready_read) mutable {
+                  if (!ready_read.result().ok()) {
+                    promise.SetResult(ready_read.result().status());
+                    return;
+                  }
+                  if (!ready_read.value().has_value()) {
+                    promise.SetResult(absl::NotFoundError(
+                        "Missing zarr.json for header variable."));
+                    return;
+                  }
+
+                  ::nlohmann::json zarr_json;
+                  try {
+                    zarr_json = ::nlohmann::json::parse(
+                        std::string(ready_read.value().value));
+                  } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+                    promise.SetResult(absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+                        std::string("JSON parse error: ") + e.what()));
+                    return;
+                  }
+
+                  zarr_json["attributes"] = attrs_to_write;
+
+                  auto write_result = tensorstore::kvstore::Write(
+                      kvs, "/zarr.json",
+                      absl::Cord(zarr_json.dump(4)));
+                  write_result.ExecuteWhenReady(
+                      [promise = std::move(promise), this](
+                          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<
+                              tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>
+                              ready_write) {
+                        if (!ready_write.result().ok()) {
+                          promise.SetResult(ready_write.result().status());
+                          return;
+                        }
+                        attributesAddress =
+                            reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
+                        promise.SetResult(ready_write.result().value());
+                      });
+                });
+            return;
+          }
+
+          auto write_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Write(
+              ready_kvs.value(), "/.zattrs", absl::Cord(attrs_to_write.dump(4)));
+          write_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+              [promise = std::move(promise), this](
+                  tensorstore::ReadyFuture<
+                      tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>
+                      ready_write) {
+                if (!ready_write.result().ok()) {
+                  promise.SetResult(ready_write.result().status());
+                  return;
+                }
+                attributesAddress =
+                    reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
+                promise.SetResult(ready_write.result().value());
+              });
+        });
+
+    return pair.future;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Builds a commit spec for consolidated metadata writes.
+   *
+   * V2 consolidated metadata must preserve the original string dtype .zarray
+   * verbatim because GetZarray rejects those dtypes.
+   */
+  nlohmann::json ToCommitJson() const {
+    nlohmann::json json = getReducedMetadata();
+    json["kvstore"] = kvstore_spec_;
+    json["_mdio_header_only"] = true;
+    json["_mdio_zarray"] = array_metadata_;
+    json["attributes"] = BuildPublishAttrs();
+
+    if (zarr_version_ == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      json["driver"] = std::string(zarr::v3::kDriverName);
+      json["_mdio_array_metadata"] = array_metadata_;
+    } else {
+      json["driver"] = std::string(zarr::v2::kDriverName);
+      json["_mdio_zattrs"] = json["attributes"];
+    }
+
+    if (json.contains("long_name")) {
+      json["attributes"]["long_name"] = json["long_name"];
+      json.erase("long_name");
+    }
+    if (metadata.contains("dimension_names")) {
+      json["attributes"]["dimension_names"] = metadata["dimension_names"];
+    }
+    return json;
+  }
+
+  const std::string& get_dtype_name() const { return dtypeName_; }
+  zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version() const { return zarr_version_; }
+
+ private:
+  tensorstore::IndexDomain<> domain_;
+  std::string dtypeName_;
+  ::nlohmann::json kvstore_spec_;
+  zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version_ = zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2;
+  ::nlohmann::json array_metadata_;
+  ::nlohmann::json zattrs_;
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief A collection of metadata-only header variables.
+ */
+class HeaderVariableCollection {
+ public:
+  HeaderVariableCollection() = default;
+
+  void add(const std::string& label, const HeaderVariable<>& variable) {
+    variables_[label] = variable;
+  }
+
+  template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+            ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
+  Result<HeaderVariable<T, R, M>> get(const std::string& label) const {
+    if (!variables_.count(label)) {
+      return absl::NotFoundError("Label '" + label +
+                                 "' not found in header variables.");
+    }
+    return variables_.at(label);
+  }
+
+  template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+            ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
+  Result<HeaderVariable<T, R, M>> at(const std::string& label) const {
+    if (!variables_.count(label)) {
+      return absl::NotFoundError("Label '" + label +
+                                 "' not found in header variables.");
+    }
+    return variables_.at(label);
+  }
+
+  bool contains_key(const std::string& label) const {
+    return variables_.count(label) != 0;
+  }
+
+  std::vector<std::string> get_keys() const {
+    std::vector<std::string> keys;
+    for (const auto& [key, _] : variables_) {
+      keys.emplace_back(key);
+    }
+    return keys;
+  }
+
+  std::vector<std::string> get_iterable_accessor() const {
+    std::vector keys = get_keys();
+    std::sort(keys.begin(), keys.end());
+    return keys;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  std::unordered_map<std::string, HeaderVariable<>> variables_;
+};
+
+}  // namespace mdio
+
+#endif  // MDIO_HEADER_VARIABLE_H_
diff --git a/mdio/header_variable_test.cc b/mdio/header_variable_test.cc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d1e9ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/header_variable_test.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#include "mdio/header_variable.h"
+
+#include <gmock/gmock.h>
+#include <gtest/gtest.h>
+
+#include <sstream>
+
+namespace {
+
+TEST(HeaderVariableTest, FromSpecV3Scalar) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+    "_mdio_header_only": true,
+    "driver": "zarr3",
+    "kvstore": {
+      "driver": "file",
+      "path": "/tmp/dataset/segy_file_header"
+    },
+    "_mdio_array_metadata": {
+      "shape": [],
+      "data_type": {
+        "name": "fixed_length_utf32",
+        "configuration": {"length_bytes": 4}
+      },
+      "attributes": {
+        "textHeader": "C01 EXAMPLE",
+        "binaryHeader": {"job_id": 1}
+      }
+    }
+  })");
+
+  auto header = mdio::HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header.ok()) << header.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->get_variable_name(), "segy_file_header");
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->rank(), 0);
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->get_dtype_name(), "fixed_length_utf32");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(header->GetAttributes()["attributes"].contains("textHeader"));
+}
+
+TEST(HeaderVariableTest, FromSpecV2Scalar) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+    "_mdio_header_only": true,
+    "driver": "zarr",
+    "kvstore": {
+      "driver": "file",
+      "path": "/tmp/dataset/segy_file_header"
+    },
+    "_mdio_zarray": {
+      "shape": [],
+      "dtype": "<U1"
+    },
+    "_mdio_zattrs": {
+      "textHeader": "C01 EXAMPLE"
+    }
+  })");
+
+  auto header = mdio::HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header.ok()) << header.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->get_variable_name(), "segy_file_header");
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->get_dtype_name(), "<U1");
+}
+
+TEST(HeaderVariableTest, ArrayReadWriteUnsupported) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+    "_mdio_header_only": true,
+    "driver": "zarr3",
+    "kvstore": {"driver": "file", "path": "/tmp/dataset/segy_file_header"},
+    "_mdio_array_metadata": {
+      "shape": [],
+      "data_type": "string",
+      "attributes": {"textHeader": "C01"}
+    }
+  })");
+
+  auto header = mdio::HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header.ok()) << header.status();
+
+  auto read_future = header->Read();
+  EXPECT_FALSE(read_future.status().ok());
+}
+
+TEST(HeaderVariableTest, UpdateAttributes) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+    "_mdio_header_only": true,
+    "driver": "zarr3",
+    "kvstore": {"driver": "file", "path": "/tmp/dataset/segy_file_header"},
+    "_mdio_array_metadata": {
+      "shape": [],
+      "data_type": "string",
+      "attributes": {"textHeader": "C01"}
+    }
+  })");
+
+  auto header = mdio::HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header.ok()) << header.status();
+  EXPECT_FALSE(header->was_updated());
+
+  nlohmann::json updated = header->GetAttributes();
+  updated["attributes"]["marker"] = "updated";
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header->UpdateAttributes(updated).ok());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(header->was_updated());
+  EXPECT_EQ(header->GetAttributes()["attributes"]["marker"], "updated");
+}
+
+TEST(HeaderVariableTest, OperatorPrint) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+    "_mdio_header_only": true,
+    "driver": "zarr3",
+    "kvstore": {"driver": "file", "path": "/tmp/dataset/segy_file_header"},
+    "_mdio_array_metadata": {
+      "shape": [],
+      "data_type": "string",
+      "attributes": {"textHeader": "C01"}
+    }
+  })");
+
+  auto header = mdio::HeaderVariable<>::FromSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(header.ok()) << header.status();
+
+  std::stringstream ss;
+  ss << header.value();
+  EXPECT_THAT(ss.str(), ::testing::HasSubstr("segy_file_header"));
+}
+
+}  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/regression_tests/multidimio_compatibility_test.py b/mdio/regression_tests/multidimio_compatibility_test.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..007f3a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/regression_tests/multidimio_compatibility_test.py
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+# Copyright 2026 TGS
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+import argparse
+import os
+import sys
+import time
+
+try:
+    import zarr
+    from segy.schema import HeaderField
+    from segy.standards import get_segy_standard
+
+    import mdio
+    from mdio import segy_to_mdio, open_mdio
+    from mdio.builder.schemas.v1.units import TimeUnitModel
+    from mdio.builder.template_registry import get_template
+except ImportError as e:
+    print(f"Failed to import required packages: {e}")
+    sys.exit(0xfd)
+
+
+def _apply_requested_zarr_format():
+    """Honor the Zarr format requested via ZARR_DEFAULT_ZARR_FORMAT.
+
+    Zarr reads this environment variable at import time, but `import mdio`
+    above already imports zarr, so we re-apply it explicitly here to make sure
+    the requested format wins regardless of import ordering.
+    """
+    zarr_format = os.environ.get("ZARR_DEFAULT_ZARR_FORMAT")
+    if zarr_format is not None:
+        zarr.config.set({"default_zarr_format": int(zarr_format)})
+
+
+def test_multidimio_ingestion(output_path):
+    os.environ["MDIO__IMPORT__CLOUD_NATIVE"] = "true"
+    os.environ["MDIO__IMPORT__SAVE_SEGY_FILE_HEADER"] = "true"
+
+    _apply_requested_zarr_format()
+    print(f"Using Zarr format: {zarr.config.get('default_zarr_format')}")
+
+    input_url = "http://s3.amazonaws.com/teapot/filt_mig.sgy"
+
+    print(f"Ingesting remote SEG-Y: {input_url} to {output_path}")
+
+    teapot_trace_headers = [
+        HeaderField(name="inline", byte=181, format="int32"),
+        HeaderField(name="crossline", byte=185, format="int32"),
+        HeaderField(name="cdp_x", byte=189, format="int32"),
+        HeaderField(name="cdp_y", byte=193, format="int32"),
+    ]
+
+    rev0_segy_spec = get_segy_standard(0)
+    teapot_segy_spec = rev0_segy_spec.customize(trace_header_fields=teapot_trace_headers)
+
+    mdio_template = get_template("PostStack3DTime")
+    unit_ms = TimeUnitModel(time="ms")
+    mdio_template.add_units({"time": unit_ms})
+
+    try:
+        # Ingest. The remote SEG-Y fetch can hit transient HTTP errors, so retry
+        # a few times before giving up.
+        max_attempts = 3
+        for attempt in range(1, max_attempts + 1):
+            try:
+                segy_to_mdio(
+                    input_path=input_url,
+                    output_path=output_path,
+                    segy_spec=teapot_segy_spec,
+                    mdio_template=mdio_template,
+                    overwrite=True,
+                )
+                break
+            except Exception as ingest_error:  # noqa: BLE001
+                if attempt == max_attempts:
+                    raise
+                print(
+                    f"Ingestion attempt {attempt}/{max_attempts} failed "
+                    f"({type(ingest_error).__name__}: {ingest_error}); retrying..."
+                )
+                time.sleep(2 * attempt)
+        print("Ingestion successful.")
+
+        # Open and read
+        print(f"Opening ingested MDIO dataset: {output_path}")
+        dataset = open_mdio(output_path)
+        print("Dataset opened successfully.")
+        print("Sizes:", dataset.sizes)
+
+        # Verify we can read data variables
+        amp_sample = dataset["amplitude"].isel(inline=0, crossline=0, time=slice(0, 5)).values
+        print("Sample amplitude data:", amp_sample)
+
+        print("Multidimio ingestion and read validation passed.")
+        return 0
+    except Exception as e:
+        print(f"Failed during multidimio compatibility test: {e}")
+        print(f"Exception type: {type(e).__name__}")
+        return 0xff
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
+        description="Test multidimio ingestion and read."
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "output_path", type=str, help="The output path for the ingested MDIO dataset."
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    sys.exit(test_multidimio_ingestion(args.output_path))
diff --git a/mdio/regression_tests/xarray_compatibility_test.py b/mdio/regression_tests/xarray_compatibility_test.py
index 826d865..5b2eca4 100644
--- a/mdio/regression_tests/xarray_compatibility_test.py
+++ b/mdio/regression_tests/xarray_compatibility_test.py
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ def test_xarray_dataset(file_path, consolidated_metadata):
   else:
     consolidated_metadata = False
   try:
+    print(f"Opening dataset: {file_path} with consolidated metadata: {consolidated_metadata}")
     ds = xr.open_zarr(
         file_path,
         consolidated=consolidated_metadata,
diff --git a/mdio/s3_test.cc b/mdio/s3_test.cc
index 2d5e071..0af236d 100644
--- a/mdio/s3_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/s3_test.cc
@@ -15,14 +15,163 @@
 #include <gmock/gmock.h>
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 
+#include "absl/log/globals.h"
+#include "absl/log/initialize.h"
 #include "mdio/dataset.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 
 namespace {
 
+// Initialize Abseil logging before tests run to suppress verbose AWS logs
+struct AbslLogInit {
+  AbslLogInit() {
+    absl::InitializeLog();
+    // kError = show only errors, kInfinity = suppress all logs
+    absl::SetStderrThreshold(absl::LogSeverityAtLeast::kInfinity);
+  }
+};
+static AbslLogInit absl_log_init;
+
 // TODO(End user): User should point to their own S3 bucket here.
 // You may find the test dataset at: TODO: Upload the test dataset to a public
 // object store
-/*NOLINT*/ std::string const S3_PATH = "s3://USER_BUCKET";
+/*NOLINT*/ std::string const S3_PATH = "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing";
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the S3 path suffix for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetS3PathSuffix(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "/test_v3" : "/test_v2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the manifest without struct arrays (compatible with both V2
+ * and V3).
+ */
+std::string GetSimpleManifest() {
+  return R"(
+{
+    "metadata": {
+        "name": "campos_3d",
+        "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+        "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+        "attributes": {
+            "textHeader": [
+                "C01 .......................... ",
+                "C02 .......................... ",
+                "C03 .......................... "
+            ],
+            "foo": "bar"
+        }
+    },
+    "variables": [
+    {
+        "name": "image",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+            {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "statsV1": {
+            "count": 100,
+            "sum": 1215.1,
+            "sumSquares": 125.12,
+            "min": 5.61,
+            "max": 10.84,
+            "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
+            },
+            "attributes": {
+                "fizz": "buzz"
+            }
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+        "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "velocity",
+        "dataType": "float64",
+        "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            },
+            "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "image_inline",
+        "dataType": "int16",
+        "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+        "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+        "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+        "metadata": {
+            "chunkGrid": {
+                "name": "regular",
+                "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+            }
+        },
+        "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "inline",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "crossline",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "depth",
+        "dataType": "uint32",
+        "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "cdp-x",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    },
+    {
+        "name": "cdp-y",
+        "dataType": "float32",
+        "dimensions": [
+            {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+            {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+        ],
+        "metadata": {
+            "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+        }
+    }]
+}
+)";
+}
+
+// V2-only manifest with struct arrays
 
 /*NOLINT*/ std::string const fullToyManifest = R"(
 {
@@ -158,7 +307,7 @@ namespace {
 )";
 
 TEST(S3, create) {
-  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "s3_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -169,7 +318,7 @@ TEST(S3, create) {
 }
 
 TEST(S3, open) {
-  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "s3_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -182,7 +331,7 @@ TEST(S3, open) {
 }
 
 TEST(S3, write) {
-  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "s3_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -284,7 +433,7 @@ TEST(S3, write) {
 }
 
 TEST(S3, read) {
-  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET") {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
                     "s3_test.cc file.";
   }
@@ -303,4 +452,94 @@ TEST(S3, read) {
   ASSERT_TRUE(future.status().ok()) << future.status();
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized S3 Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class S3VersionTest : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    test_path_ = S3_PATH + GetS3PathSuffix(version_);
+  }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string test_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(S3VersionTest, create) {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "s3_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                          mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+}
+
+TEST_P(S3VersionTest, open) {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "s3_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  // First create the dataset
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto createRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                            mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(createRes.status().ok()) << createRes.status();
+
+  // Then open it
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+}
+
+TEST_P(S3VersionTest, readWrite) {
+  if (S3_PATH == "s3://USER_BUCKET/mdio_cpp_testing") {
+    GTEST_SKIP() << "Please set the S3_PATH to your own bucket in the "
+                    "s3_test.cc file.";
+  }
+  nlohmann::json j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto createRes = mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, test_path_, version_,
+                                            mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(createRes.status().ok()) << createRes.status();
+
+  auto dataset = mdio::Dataset::Open(test_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dataset.status().ok()) << dataset.status();
+
+  auto ds = dataset.value();
+
+  // Read and write to the image variable
+  auto imageVarRes = ds.variables.get<mdio::dtypes::float32_t>("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
+  auto imageVar = imageVarRes.value();
+
+  auto imageDataRes = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageDataRes.status().ok()) << imageDataRes.status();
+  auto imageData = imageDataRes.value();
+
+  auto accessor = imageData.get_data_accessor().data();
+  accessor[0] = 3.14f;
+  accessor[1] = 2.71f;
+
+  auto writeFut = imageVar.Write(imageData);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(writeFut.status().ok()) << writeFut.status();
+
+  // Re-read and verify
+  auto rereadRes = imageVar.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(rereadRes.status().ok()) << rereadRes.status();
+  auto rereadAccessor = rereadRes.value().get_data_accessor().data();
+
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[0], 3.14f);
+  EXPECT_FLOAT_EQ(rereadAccessor[1], 2.71f);
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, S3VersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/stats.h b/mdio/stats.h
index d2d27a5..6e0d81a 100644
--- a/mdio/stats.h
+++ b/mdio/stats.h
@@ -414,16 +414,32 @@ class UserAttributes {
         std::vector<internal::SummaryStats> statsCollection;
         if (j.contains("statsV1")) {
           auto statsJson = j["statsV1"];
+          // statsV1 may be stored as a serialized JSON string in some
+          // third-party Zarr stores; parse it if needed.
+          auto parse_if_string =
+              [](const nlohmann::json& val) -> mdio::Result<nlohmann::json> {
+            if (val.is_string()) {
+              try {
+                return nlohmann::json::parse(val.get<std::string>());
+              } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+                return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+                    std::string("Error parsing statsV1 string: ") + e.what());
+              }
+            }
+            return val;
+          };
           if (statsJson.is_array()) {
             for (auto& s : statsJson) {
-              auto statsRes = internal::SummaryStats::FromJson<T>(s);
+              MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto parsed, parse_if_string(s));
+              auto statsRes = internal::SummaryStats::FromJson<T>(parsed);
               if (!statsRes.status().ok()) {
                 return statsRes.status();
               }
               statsCollection.emplace_back(statsRes.value());
             }
           } else {
-            auto statsRes = internal::SummaryStats::FromJson<T>(statsJson);
+            MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto parsed, parse_if_string(statsJson));
+            auto statsRes = internal::SummaryStats::FromJson<T>(parsed);
             if (!statsRes.status().ok()) {
               return statsRes.status();
             }
diff --git a/mdio/stats_test.cc b/mdio/stats_test.cc
index 468c874..c75bbd0 100644
--- a/mdio/stats_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/stats_test.cc
@@ -493,4 +493,140 @@ TEST(Units, unitsFromJsonString) {
   EXPECT_EQ(ua_json["unitsV1"], "rad");
 }
 
+TEST(HistogramTest, isBindable) {
+  EXPECT_TRUE(getCenterHist()->isBindable());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(getEdgeHist()->isBindable());
+}
+
+TEST(HistogramTest, fromJsonErrorPaths) {
+  nlohmann::json noParent = {{"binCenters", {1.0, 2.0}}, {"counts", {1, 2}}};
+  auto centered = mdio::internal::CenteredBinHistogram<float>({}, {});
+  EXPECT_FALSE(centered.FromJson(noParent).status().ok());
+
+  nlohmann::json noChild = {{"histogram", {{"counts", {1, 2}}}}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(centered.FromJson(noChild).status().ok());
+
+  nlohmann::json edgeNoParent = {
+      {"binEdges", {0.0, 1.0}}, {"binWidths", {1.0}}, {"counts", {1}}};
+  auto edge = mdio::internal::EdgeDefinedHistogram<float>({}, {}, {});
+  EXPECT_FALSE(edge.FromJson(edgeNoParent).status().ok());
+
+  nlohmann::json edgeNoChild = {
+      {"histogram", {{"binEdges", {0.0, 1.0}}, {"counts", {1}}}}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(edge.FromJson(edgeNoChild).status().ok());
+}
+
+TEST(SummaryStatsTest, fromJsonEdgeHistogramAndMissingHistogram) {
+  nlohmann::json edgeStats = {{"count", 50},
+                              {"min", -500.0},
+                              {"max", 500.0},
+                              {"sum", 100.0},
+                              {"sumSquares", 5000.0},
+                              {"histogram",
+                               {{"binEdges", {0.0, 1.0, 2.0}},
+                                {"binWidths", {1.0, 1.0}},
+                                {"counts", {10, 20}}}}};
+  auto statsRes = mdio::internal::SummaryStats::FromJson(edgeStats);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(statsRes.status().ok()) << statsRes.status();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(statsRes.value().getBindable()["histogram"].contains("binEdges"));
+
+  nlohmann::json noHist = {{"count", 100},
+                           {"min", 0.0},
+                           {"max", 100.0},
+                           {"sum", 50.0},
+                           {"sumSquares", 500.0}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::internal::SummaryStats::FromJson(noHist).status().ok());
+}
+
+TEST(UserAttributesTest, fromVariableJson) {
+  nlohmann::json centered = {
+      {"name", "test"},
+      {"dataType", "float32"},
+      {"metadata",
+       {{"statsV1",
+         {{"count", 100},
+          {"min", -10.0},
+          {"max", 10.0},
+          {"sum", 50.0},
+          {"sumSquares", 500.0},
+          {"histogram",
+           {{"binCenters", {-5.0, 0.0, 5.0}}, {"counts", {30, 40, 30}}}}}}}}};
+  auto centeredRes = mdio::UserAttributes::FromVariableJson(centered);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(centeredRes.status().ok()) << centeredRes.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(centeredRes.value().ToJson()["statsV1"]["count"], 100);
+
+  nlohmann::json edge = {{"name", "test"},
+                         {"dataType", "float32"},
+                         {"metadata",
+                          {{"statsV1",
+                            {{"count", 200},
+                             {"min", 0.0},
+                             {"max", 100.0},
+                             {"sum", 5000.0},
+                             {"sumSquares", 250000.0},
+                             {"histogram",
+                              {{"binEdges", {0.0, 50.0, 100.0}},
+                               {"binWidths", {50.0, 50.0}},
+                               {"counts", {100, 100}}}}}}}}};
+  auto edgeRes = mdio::UserAttributes::FromVariableJson(edge);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(edgeRes.status().ok()) << edgeRes.status();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      edgeRes.value().ToJson()["statsV1"]["histogram"].contains("binEdges"));
+
+  nlohmann::json noMeta = {{"name", "simple"}, {"dataType", "int32"}};
+  auto noMetaRes = mdio::UserAttributes::FromVariableJson(noMeta);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(noMetaRes.status().ok()) << noMetaRes.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(noMetaRes.value().ToJson(), nlohmann::json::object());
+}
+
+TEST(UserAttributesTest, accessors) {
+  nlohmann::json full = {
+      {"statsV1",
+       {{"count", 100},
+        {"min", -1000.0},
+        {"max", 1000.0},
+        {"sum", 0.0},
+        {"sumSquares", 0.0},
+        {"histogram", {{"binCenters", {1.0, 2.0}}, {"counts", {50, 50}}}}}},
+      {"unitsV1", {{"length", "m"}, {"time", "s"}}},
+      {"attributes", {{"foo", "bar"}, {"count", 42}}}};
+  auto fullRes = mdio::UserAttributes::FromJson(full);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(fullRes.status().ok()) << fullRes.status();
+  auto attrs = fullRes.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs.getStatsV1()["count"], 100);
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs.getUnitsV1().size(), 2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs.getAttrs()["foo"], "bar");
+
+  nlohmann::json empty = nlohmann::json::object();
+  auto emptyRes = mdio::UserAttributes::FromJson(empty);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(emptyRes.status().ok());
+  auto emptyAttrs = emptyRes.value();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(emptyAttrs.getStatsV1().empty());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(emptyAttrs.getUnitsV1().empty());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(emptyAttrs.getAttrs().empty());
+}
+
+TEST(UserAttributesTest, statsV1AsArray) {
+  nlohmann::json arrayStats = {
+      {"name", "test"},
+      {"metadata",
+       {{"statsV1",
+         {{{"count", 10},
+           {"min", 0},
+           {"max", 100},
+           {"sum", 500},
+           {"sumSquares", 25000},
+           {"histogram", {{"binCenters", {1, 2, 3}}, {"counts", {3, 4, 3}}}}},
+          {{"count", 20},
+           {"min", 0},
+           {"max", 200},
+           {"sum", 1000},
+           {"sumSquares", 50000},
+           {"histogram",
+            {{"binCenters", {1, 2, 3}}, {"counts", {6, 8, 6}}}}}}}}}};
+  auto res = mdio::UserAttributes::FromVariableJson(arrayStats);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(res.value().ToJson()["statsV1"].size(), 2);
+}
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/utils/delete.h b/mdio/utils/delete.h
index ecb5b1a..25838b8 100644
--- a/mdio/utils/delete.h
+++ b/mdio/utils/delete.h
@@ -31,14 +31,18 @@ namespace utils {
  * deletion. This is intended to provide a safe interface to delete MDIO
  * datasets.
  * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
  * @return OK result if the dataset was valid and deleted successfully,
  * otherwise an error result
  */
-inline Result<void> DeleteDataset(const std::string dataset_path) {
+inline Result<void> DeleteDataset(
+    const std::string dataset_path,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
   // Open the dataset
   // This is to ensure that what is getting deleted by MDIO is a valid MDIO
   // dataset itself.
-  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  auto dsRes =
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen, context);
   if (!dsRes.status().ok()) {
     return dsRes.status();
   }
@@ -47,8 +51,8 @@ inline Result<void> DeleteDataset(const std::string dataset_path) {
   // Pick the arbitrarially first Variable in the dataset as the base KVStore
   // template
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var,
-                        ds.variables.at(ds.variables.get_keys().front()))
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto spec, var.get_spec())
+                        ds.variables.at(ds.variables.get_keys().front()));
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto spec, var.get_spec());
   nlohmann::json kvs = spec["kvstore"];
 
   // Drop the Variable path from the KVStore path. This is will leave us with
@@ -62,7 +66,7 @@ inline Result<void> DeleteDataset(const std::string dataset_path) {
   }
   kvs["path"] = path;
 
-  auto kvsFuture = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvs);
+  auto kvsFuture = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvs, context);
   if (!kvsFuture.status().ok()) {
     return kvsFuture.status();
   }
diff --git a/mdio/utils/delete_test.cc b/mdio/utils/delete_test.cc
index 8833b4f..7211588 100644
--- a/mdio/utils/delete_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/utils/delete_test.cc
@@ -17,8 +17,11 @@
 #include <gmock/gmock.h>
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 
+#include <filesystem>
 #include <string>
 
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
+
 // clang-format off
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
 // clang-format on
@@ -30,10 +33,149 @@ namespace {
 
 /*NOLINT*/ const std::string kTestPath = "zarrs/testing/utils.mdio";
 
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarrs/testing/utils_v3.mdio"
+                                                 : "zarrs/testing/utils.mdio";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns manifest without struct arrays (compatible with both V2 and
+ * V3).
+ */
+std::string GetSimpleManifest() {
+  return R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "campos_3d",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+    "attributes": {
+      "textHeader": [
+        "C01 .......................... ",
+        "C02 .......................... ",
+        "C03 .......................... "
+      ],
+      "foo": "bar"
+    }
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "image",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+        {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "velocity",
+      "dataType": "float64",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        },
+        "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "image_inline",
+      "dataType": "int16",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "inline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "crossline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "depth",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-x",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-y",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    }
+  ]
+}
+)";
+}
+
+/**
+ * Sets up an inert dataset for testing destructive operations (V2/V3
+ * compatible)
+ */
+mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(
+    const std::string& path,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  auto j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dsRes =
+      mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, path, version, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  return dsRes;
+}
+
+// V2-only setup with struct arrays
 /**
  * Sets up an inert dataset for testing destructive operations
  */
-mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(const std::string& path) {
+mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP_V2(const std::string& path) {
   std::string datasetManifest = R"(
 {
   "metadata": {
@@ -173,20 +315,21 @@ mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(const std::string& path) {
   return dsRes;
 }
 
-TEST(DeleteDataset, delLocal) {
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
+// V2-only tests (with struct arrays)
+TEST(DeleteDatasetV2Only, delLocal) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP_V2(kTestPath).status().ok());
   auto res = mdio::utils::DeleteDataset(kTestPath);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
   auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   EXPECT_FALSE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
 }
 
-TEST(DeleteDataset, delGCS) {
+TEST(DeleteDatasetV2Only, delGCS) {
   if (GCS_PATH == "gs://USER_BUCKET") {
     GTEST_SKIP() << "Skipping GCS deletion test.\nTo enable, please update the "
                     "GCS_PATH variable in the utils_test.cc file.";
   }
-  auto setupStatus = SETUP(GCS_PATH);
+  auto setupStatus = SETUP_V2(GCS_PATH);
   ASSERT_TRUE(setupStatus.status().ok()) << setupStatus.status();
   auto res = mdio::utils::DeleteDataset(GCS_PATH);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
@@ -194,4 +337,40 @@ TEST(DeleteDataset, delGCS) {
   EXPECT_FALSE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Delete Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class DeleteDatasetVersionTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(DeleteDatasetVersionTest, delLocal) {
+  auto setupRes = SETUP(base_path_, version_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(setupRes.status().ok()) << setupRes.status();
+  auto res = mdio::utils::DeleteDataset(base_path_);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, DeleteDatasetVersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/utils/trim.h b/mdio/utils/trim.h
index 307a4c2..4340886 100644
--- a/mdio/utils/trim.h
+++ b/mdio/utils/trim.h
@@ -37,6 +37,7 @@ namespace utils {
  * @param delete_sliced_out_chunks If true, chunks that fall completely outside
  * the slice descriptors will be deleted. If false, chunks that fall completely
  * outside the slice descriptors will remain untouched but inaccessable.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
  * @param descriptors The descriptors to use for the slice. Only considers the
  * label and stop value.
  * @return A future of the trim operation.
@@ -44,9 +45,11 @@ namespace utils {
 template <typename... Descriptors>
 Future<void> TrimDataset(std::string dataset_path,
                          bool delete_sliced_out_chunks,
+                         tensorstore::Context context,
                          const Descriptors&... descriptors) {
   // Open the dataset
-  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  auto dsRes =
+      mdio::Dataset::Open(dataset_path, mdio::constants::kOpen, context);
   if (!dsRes.status().ok()) {
     return dsRes.status();
   }
@@ -64,7 +67,7 @@ Future<void> TrimDataset(std::string dataset_path,
   }
 
   for (auto& varIdentifier : ds.variables.get_iterable_accessor()) {
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, ds.variables.at(varIdentifier))
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto var, ds.variables.at(varIdentifier));
     var.set_metadata_publish_flag(true);
 
     bool wasStruct = var.dimensions().labels().back() == "";
@@ -113,6 +116,30 @@ Future<void> TrimDataset(std::string dataset_path,
   return ds.CommitMetadata();
 }
 
+/**
+ * @brief Trims the dataset to the specified dimensions (using default context).
+ * DANGER: This operation will mutate the dataset on disk. Use caution when
+ * calling this method! This function is not part of the Dataset class to avoid
+ * accidental data destruction. Additionally this function should only be used
+ * on a fully written dataset to avoid race conditions and data corruption.
+ *
+ * @tparam ...Descriptors Expects an mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index>
+ * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset to trim.
+ * @param delete_sliced_out_chunks If true, chunks that fall completely outside
+ * the slice descriptors will be deleted. If false, chunks that fall completely
+ * outside the slice descriptors will remain untouched but inaccessable.
+ * @param descriptors The descriptors to use for the slice. Only considers the
+ * label and stop value.
+ * @return A future of the trim operation.
+ */
+template <typename... Descriptors>
+Future<void> TrimDataset(std::string dataset_path,
+                         bool delete_sliced_out_chunks,
+                         const Descriptors&... descriptors) {
+  return TrimDataset(dataset_path, delete_sliced_out_chunks,
+                     tensorstore::Context::Default(), descriptors...);
+}
+
 }  // namespace utils
 }  // namespace mdio
 
diff --git a/mdio/utils/trim_test.cc b/mdio/utils/trim_test.cc
index dd5f6f9..5ff5099 100644
--- a/mdio/utils/trim_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/utils/trim_test.cc
@@ -17,8 +17,11 @@
 #include <gmock/gmock.h>
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 
+#include <filesystem>
 #include <string>
 
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
+
 // clang-format off
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
 // clang-format on
@@ -27,10 +30,160 @@ namespace {
 
 /*NOLINT*/ const std::string kTestPath = "zarrs/testing/utils.mdio";
 
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarrs/testing/trim_v3.mdio"
+                                                 : "zarrs/testing/trim.mdio";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns manifest without struct arrays (compatible with both V2 and
+ * V3).
+ */
+std::string GetSimpleManifest() {
+  return R"(
+{
+  "metadata": {
+    "name": "campos_3d",
+    "apiVersion": "1.0.0",
+    "createdOn": "2023-12-12T15:02:06.413469-06:00",
+    "attributes": {
+      "textHeader": [
+        "C01 .......................... ",
+        "C02 .......................... ",
+        "C03 .......................... "
+      ],
+      "foo": "bar"
+    }
+  },
+  "variables": [
+    {
+      "name": "image",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512},
+        {"name": "depth", "size": 384}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        },
+        "statsV1": {
+          "count": 100,
+          "sum": 1215.1,
+          "sumSquares": 125.12,
+          "min": 5.61,
+          "max": 10.84,
+          "histogram": {"binCenters":  [1, 2], "counts":  [10, 15]}
+        },
+        "attributes": {
+          "fizz": "buzz"
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"],
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"}
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "velocity",
+      "dataType": "float64",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        },
+        "unitsV1": {"speed": "m/s"}
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "image_inline",
+      "dataType": "int16",
+      "dimensions": ["inline", "crossline", "depth"],
+      "longName": "inline optimized version of 3d_stack",
+      "compressor": {"name": "blosc", "algorithm": "zstd"},
+      "metadata": {
+        "chunkGrid": {
+          "name": "regular",
+          "configuration": { "chunkShape": [128, 128, 128] }
+        }
+      },
+      "coordinates": ["inline", "crossline", "depth", "cdp-x", "cdp-y"]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "inline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "inline", "size": 256}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "crossline",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "crossline", "size": 512}]
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "depth",
+      "dataType": "uint32",
+      "dimensions": [{"name": "depth", "size": 384}],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-x",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "cdp-y",
+      "dataType": "float32",
+      "dimensions": [
+        {"name": "inline", "size": 256},
+        {"name": "crossline", "size": 512}
+      ],
+      "metadata": {
+        "unitsV1": { "length": "m" }
+      }
+    }
+  ]
+}
+)";
+}
+
+/**
+ * Sets up an inert dataset for testing destructive operations (V2/V3
+ * compatible)
+ */
+mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(
+    const std::string& path,
+    mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+  auto j = nlohmann::json::parse(GetSimpleManifest());
+  auto dsRes =
+      mdio::Dataset::from_json(j, path, version, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  return dsRes;
+}
+
+// V2-only setup with struct arrays
 /**
  * Sets up an inert dataset for testing destructive operations
  */
-mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(const std::string& path) {
+mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP_V2(const std::string& path) {
   std::string datasetManifest = R"(
 {
   "metadata": {
@@ -170,25 +323,72 @@ mdio::Future<mdio::Dataset> SETUP(const std::string& path) {
   return dsRes;
 }
 
-TEST(TrimDataset, noop) {
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
+// V2-only tests (with struct arrays)
+TEST(TrimDatasetV2Only, noop) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP_V2(kTestPath).status().ok());
   auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(kTestPath, false);
   EXPECT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
 }
 
-TEST(TrimDataset, oneSlice) {
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
+TEST(TrimDatasetV2Only, metadataConsistency) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP_V2(kTestPath).status().ok());
+  nlohmann::json imageData;
+  {
+    auto dsFut = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(dsFut.status().ok()) << dsFut.status();
+    auto ds = dsFut.value();
+    auto imageVarRes = ds.variables.at("image");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
+    imageData = imageVarRes.value().getMetadata();
+  }
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> slice = {"inline", 0, 128, 1};
   auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(kTestPath, true, slice);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
   auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
+  auto imageVarRes = dsRes.value().variables.at("image");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(imageVarRes.value().getMetadata(), imageData);
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Trim Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class TrimDatasetVersionTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(TrimDatasetVersionTest, noop) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(base_path_, version_).status().ok());
+  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(base_path_, false);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+}
+
+TEST_P(TrimDatasetVersionTest, oneSlice) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(base_path_, version_).status().ok());
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> slice = {"inline", 0, 128, 1};
+  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(base_path_, true, slice);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
+  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
 }
 
-TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceData) {
+TEST_P(TrimDatasetVersionTest, oneSliceData) {
   // Set up the dataset
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
-  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(base_path_, version_).status().ok());
+  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
   auto ds = dsRes.value();
 
@@ -210,12 +410,12 @@ TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceData) {
   auto writeFuture = inlineVar.Write(inlineVarData);
   ASSERT_TRUE(writeFuture.status().ok()) << writeFuture.status();
 
-  // Trim outside of a chunk boundry
+  // Trim outside of a chunk boundary
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> slice = {"inline", 0, 128, 1};
-  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(kTestPath, true, slice);
+  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(base_path_, true, slice);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
 
-  auto newDsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  auto newDsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(newDsRes.status().ok()) << newDsRes.status();
   auto newDs = newDsRes.value();
 
@@ -234,10 +434,10 @@ TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceData) {
   }
 }
 
-TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceDataNoDelete) {
+TEST_P(TrimDatasetVersionTest, oneSliceDataNoDelete) {
   // Set up the dataset
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
-  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(base_path_, version_).status().ok());
+  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
   auto ds = dsRes.value();
 
@@ -259,12 +459,12 @@ TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceDataNoDelete) {
   auto writeFuture = inlineVar.Write(inlineVarData);
   ASSERT_TRUE(writeFuture.status().ok()) << writeFuture.status();
 
-  // Trim outside of a chunk boundry
+  // Trim outside of a chunk boundary
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> slice = {"inline", 0, 128, 1};
-  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(kTestPath, false, slice);
+  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(base_path_, false, slice);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
 
-  auto newDsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  auto newDsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(newDsRes.status().ok()) << newDsRes.status();
   auto newDs = newDsRes.value();
 
@@ -283,11 +483,11 @@ TEST(TrimDataset, oneSliceDataNoDelete) {
   }
 }
 
-TEST(TrimDataset, metadataConsistency) {
-  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(kTestPath).status().ok());
+TEST_P(TrimDatasetVersionTest, metadataConsistency) {
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SETUP(base_path_, version_).status().ok());
   nlohmann::json imageData;
   {
-    auto dsFut = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+    auto dsFut = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
     ASSERT_TRUE(dsFut.status().ok()) << dsFut.status();
     auto ds = dsFut.value();
     auto imageVarRes = ds.variables.at("image");
@@ -295,13 +495,21 @@ TEST(TrimDataset, metadataConsistency) {
     imageData = imageVarRes.value().getMetadata();
   }
   mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> slice = {"inline", 0, 128, 1};
-  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(kTestPath, true, slice);
+  auto res = mdio::utils::TrimDataset(base_path_, true, slice);
   ASSERT_TRUE(res.status().ok()) << res.status();
-  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(kTestPath, mdio::constants::kOpen);
+  auto dsRes = mdio::Dataset::Open(base_path_, mdio::constants::kOpen);
   ASSERT_TRUE(dsRes.status().ok()) << dsRes.status();
   auto imageVarRes = dsRes.value().variables.at("image");
   ASSERT_TRUE(imageVarRes.status().ok()) << imageVarRes.status();
   EXPECT_EQ(imageVarRes.value().getMetadata(), imageData);
 }
 
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, TrimDatasetVersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/variable.h b/mdio/variable.h
index eedebdc..be7a7d9 100644
--- a/mdio/variable.h
+++ b/mdio/variable.h
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@
 #ifndef MDIO_VARIABLE_H_
 #define MDIO_VARIABLE_H_
 
-#include <filesystem>
 #include <limits>
 #include <map>
 #include <memory>
@@ -29,10 +28,10 @@
 #include "absl/strings/str_split.h"
 #include "mdio/impl.h"
 #include "mdio/stats.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 #include "tensorstore/array.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/driver.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/registry.h"
-#include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/dtype.h"
 #include "tensorstore/index_space/dim_expression.h"
 #include "tensorstore/index_space/index_domain_builder.h"
 #include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
@@ -41,6 +40,8 @@
 #include "tensorstore/stack.h"
 #include "tensorstore/tensorstore.h"
 #include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/option.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/status.h"
 
 // clang-format off
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
@@ -245,10 +246,10 @@ inline absl::Status CheckMissingDriverStatus(const absl::Status& status) {
  * @brief Validates and processes a JSON specification for a tensorstore
  * variable.
  *
- * This function validates and processes the JSON specification for a zarr V2
- * tensorstore variable. It expects the JSON specification will have a field
- * called attributes that contains a field called dimension_names. This is a
- * specification of MDIO and is not specifically required by zarr V2
+ * This function validates and processes the JSON specification for a zarr
+ * tensorstore variable (V2 or V3). It expects the JSON specification will have
+ * a field called attributes that contains a field called dimension_names. This
+ * is a specification of MDIO and is not specifically required by zarr.
  *
  * @tparam Mode The read-write mode to use.
  * @param json_spec The JSON specification to validate and process.
@@ -274,18 +275,33 @@ Result<std::tuple<nlohmann::json, nlohmann::json>> ValidateAndProcessJson(
 
   nlohmann::json json_for_store = json_spec;
 
-  // remove attributes, the v2 store won't parse it.
+  // remove attributes, the store won't parse it.
   json_for_store.erase("attributes");
 
   // Create a new JSON and add the kvstore
   nlohmann::json new_json = json_spec["attributes"];
-  // update the variable name
-  new_json["variable_name"] =
-      std::filesystem::path(json_spec["kvstore"]["path"]).stem().string();
+  // update the variable name - extract last path component
+  std::string path = json_spec["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
+  // Remove trailing slashes
+  path = zarr::NormalizePath(path);
+  // Extract last component (variable name)
+  std::vector<std::string> path_parts = absl::StrSplit(path, '/');
+  new_json["variable_name"] = path_parts.empty() ? path : path_parts.back();
 
   return std::make_tuple(json_for_store, new_json);
 }
 
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the Zarr version from a JSON specification.
+ *
+ * @param json_spec The JSON specification.
+ * @return zarr::ZarrVersion The detected version.
+ */
+inline zarr::ZarrVersion GetZarrVersionFromSpec(
+    const nlohmann::json& json_spec) {
+  return zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(json_spec);
+}
+
 /**
  * @brief Creates a Variable object.
  *
@@ -393,10 +409,10 @@ Result<Variable<T, R, M>> from_json(
  * the created variable.
  */
 template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
-          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic, typename... Option>
+          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
 Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
                                          const nlohmann::json& json_var,
-                                         Option&&... options) {
+                                         TransactionalOpenOptions&& options) {
   auto spec = tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture<::nlohmann::json>(json_var);
 
   // FIXME - add schematized validation of the variable.
@@ -410,73 +426,53 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
                         "Variable spec requires metadata");
   }
 
-  if (!json_spec["metadata"].contains("dtype")) {
-    return absl::Status(absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
-                        "Variable metadata requires dtype");
+  // Detect Zarr version early to handle dtype field differences
+  zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version = zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(json_spec);
+
+  // Check for dtype (V2) or data_type (V3)
+  bool has_dtype = json_spec["metadata"].contains("dtype");
+  bool has_data_type = json_spec["metadata"].contains("data_type");
+
+  if (!has_dtype && !has_data_type) {
+    return absl::Status(
+        absl::StatusCode::kInvalidArgument,
+        "Variable metadata requires dtype (V2) or data_type (V3)");
   }
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto zarr_dtype, tensorstore::internal_zarr::ParseDType(
-                                             json_spec["metadata"]["dtype"]))
+  // Detect a structured (record) dtype so we can route create through the
+  // create-with-field-then-reopen-as-void flow (see the reopen step below).
+  bool do_handle_structarray = false;
+  std::string first_field_name;
+  if ((has_dtype || has_data_type) && !json_spec.contains("field")) {
+    auto field_names =
+        zarr::GetStructFieldNames(zarr_version, json_spec["metadata"]);
+    if (!field_names.empty()) {
+      do_handle_structarray = true;
+      first_field_name = field_names.front();
+    }
+  }
 
-  // Handles the use case of creating a struct array, but intending to open as
-  // void.
-  auto do_handle_structarray =
-      zarr_dtype.has_fields && !json_spec.contains("field");
-  auto json_spec_with_field = json_spec;
+  auto json_spec_with_open_flag = json_spec;
   if (do_handle_structarray) {
-    // pick the first name, it won't effect the .zarray json:
-    json_spec_with_field["field"] = zarr_dtype.fields[0].name;
+    // Create with a concrete field at the native rank; this still writes the
+    // full struct .zarray/zarr.json and does not alter it.
+    json_spec_with_open_flag["field"] = first_field_name;
   }
 
-  auto json_spec_without_metadata = json_spec;
-  json_spec_without_metadata.erase("metadata");
-  auto future_json_store = tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture<::nlohmann::json>(
-      json_spec_without_metadata);
+  // Extract context from the TransactionalOpenOptions directly
+  tensorstore::Context context = options.context;
+  tensorstore::OpenMode open_mode = options.open_mode;
 
-  auto publish = [](const ::nlohmann::json& json_var, bool isCloudStore,
-                    const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store)
+  auto publish = [zarr_version, context](
+                     const ::nlohmann::json& json_var, bool isCloudStore,
+                     const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store)
       -> Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> {
-    auto output_json = json_var;
-    output_json["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = output_json["dimension_names"];
-    output_json.erase("dimension_names");
-    output_json.erase("variable_name");
-    if (output_json.contains("metadata")) {
-      output_json["metadata"].erase("chunkGrid");
-      for (auto& item : output_json["metadata"].items()) {
-        output_json[item.key()] = std::move(item.value());
-      }
-      output_json.erase("metadata");
-    }
-    if (output_json.contains("long_name")) {
-      if (output_json["long_name"] == "") {
-        output_json.erase("long_name");
-      }
-    }
-    // Case where empty array of coordinates is provided
-    if (output_json.contains("coordinates")) {
-      auto coords = output_json["coordinates"];
-      if (coords.empty() ||
-          (coords.is_string() && coords.get<std::string>() == "")) {
-        output_json.erase("coordinates");
-      }
-    }
-    std::string outpath = "/.zattrs";
-    if (isCloudStore) {
-      outpath = ".zattrs";
+    // Use version-specific attribute writing
+    if (zarr_version == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      return zarr::v3::WriteVariableAttributes(store, json_var, isCloudStore);
+    } else {
+      return zarr::v2::WriteVariableAttributes(store, json_var, isCloudStore);
     }
-    // It's important to use the store's kvstore or else we get a race condition
-    // on "mkdir".
-    return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(store.kvstore(), outpath,
-                                       absl::Cord(output_json.dump(4)));
-  };
-
-  // this is intended to handle the struct array where we "reopen" the store
-  // but this time as struct ... but we loose the capactity for forward options.
-  // FIXME - strip "create/delete existing" and foward other options.
-  auto apply_reopen = [](const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store,
-                         const ::nlohmann::json& attributes,
-                         const ::nlohmann::json& json_spec) {
-    return tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(json_spec);
   };
 
   auto build = [](const ::nlohmann::json& metadata,
@@ -496,15 +492,28 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
     return from_json<T, R, M>(metadata, labeled_store);
   };
 
-  // Start by creating a future for the store ...
-  auto future_store = tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(
-      json_spec_with_field, std::forward<Option>(options)...);
+  // Start by creating a future for the store with explicit context
+  auto future_store =
+      tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(json_spec_with_open_flag, context, open_mode);
 
   auto handled_store = future_store;
   if (do_handle_structarray) {
-    handled_store =
-        tensorstore::MapFutureValue(tensorstore::InlineExecutor{}, apply_reopen,
-                                    future_store, spec, future_json_store);
+    // A structured array cannot be created through the open_as_void view: the
+    // void view is rank N+1 (it adds the trailing byte axis) while the on-disk
+    // struct is rank N, which trips a rank conflict on create. So we create
+    // with a concrete field (above) and then reopen the store as void to hand
+    // back the byte view.
+    auto reopen_spec = json_spec_with_open_flag;
+    reopen_spec.erase("metadata");
+    reopen_spec.erase("field");
+    reopen_spec["open_as_void"] = true;
+    auto reopen = [context, reopen_spec](
+                      const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& /*created*/) {
+      return tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(reopen_spec, context,
+                                        tensorstore::OpenMode::open);
+    };
+    handled_store = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
+        tensorstore::InlineExecutor{}, std::move(reopen), future_store);
   } else {
     handled_store = std::move(future_store);
   }
@@ -541,6 +550,23 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
   return pair.future;
 }
 
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a Variable from a JSON specification (variadic options
+ * version). This overload accepts individual options and converts them to
+ * TransactionalOpenOptions.
+ */
+template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic, typename... Option>
+Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
+                                         const nlohmann::json& json_var,
+                                         Option&&... options) {
+  TransactionalOpenOptions transact_options;
+  TENSORSTORE_RETURN_IF_ERROR(tensorstore::internal::SetAll(
+      transact_options, std::forward<Option>(options)...));
+  return CreateVariable<T, R, M>(json_spec, json_var,
+                                 std::move(transact_options));
+}
+
 /**
  * @brief Opens a Variable from a JSON specification.
  * Provide an Open method for an existing file...
@@ -553,9 +579,9 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> CreateVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
  * Variable.
  */
 template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
-          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic, typename... Option>
+          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
 Future<Variable<T, R, M>> OpenVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_store,
-                                       Option&&... options) {
+                                       TransactionalOpenOptions&& options) {
   // Infer the name from the path
   std::string variable_name = json_store["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
   std::vector<std::string> pathComponents = absl::StrSplit(variable_name, "/");
@@ -568,39 +594,71 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> OpenVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_store,
     suppliedAttributes["attributes"] = store_spec["attributes"];
     store_spec.erase("attributes");
   }
-  // attributes is not a valid key for the tensorstore open ...
-  // FIXME - resolve opening struct array with field and no metadata
-  //         updates to Tensorstore required ...
+  // Detect a structured dtype up front (while metadata is still present) so we
+  // can open directly as void. The version detection + flag logic lives in the
+  // zarr abstraction layer. This is the fast path; specs that arrive without
+  // "metadata" are still handled by the open/fail/retry fallback below.
+  store_spec = zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(store_spec);
+  // tensorstore cannot open a struct array given both "metadata" and no
+  // "field", so drop metadata here (PrepareStructuredOpenSpec already consumed
+  // it above).
   if (!store_spec.contains("field") && store_spec.contains("metadata")) {
     store_spec.erase("metadata");
   }
-  // the negative of this is valid for tensorstore ...
 
   // TODO(BrianMichell): Look into making the recheck_cached_data an open
   // option. store_spec["recheck_cached_data"] = false;  // This could become
   // problematic if we are doing read/write operations.
 
+  // Extract context directly from TransactionalOpenOptions
+  tensorstore::Context context = options.context;
+  tensorstore::OpenMode open_mode = options.open_mode;
+
   auto spec = tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture<::nlohmann::json>(store_spec);
 
-  // open a store:
+  // open a store with explicit context for credentials
   auto future_store =
-      tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(store_spec, std::forward<Option>(options)...);
+      tensorstore::Open<T, R, M>(store_spec, context, open_mode);
 
-  // start by creating a kvstore future ...
-  auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(store_spec["kvstore"]);
+  // start by creating a kvstore future with context for credentials
+  auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(store_spec["kvstore"], context);
+
+  // Detect Zarr version from the store spec
+  zarr::ZarrVersion zarr_version = zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(store_spec);
 
   // go read the metadata return json ...
-  auto read = [](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore)
+  auto read = [zarr_version](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore)
       -> Future<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult> {
-    return tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "/.zattrs");
+    if (zarr_version == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      // For V3, attributes are in zarr.json
+      return tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "/zarr.json");
+    } else {
+      // For V2, attributes are in .zattrs
+      return tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "/.zattrs");
+    }
   };
 
   // go read the attributes return json ...
-  auto parse = [](const tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult& kvs_read,
-                  const ::nlohmann::json& spec) {
-    auto attributes =
+  auto parse = [zarr_version](const tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult& kvs_read,
+                              const ::nlohmann::json& spec) {
+    auto parsed =
         nlohmann::json::parse(std::string(kvs_read.value), nullptr, false);
-    return attributes;
+    if (zarr_version == zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+      // For V3, extract attributes from zarr.json
+      nlohmann::json result;
+      if (parsed.contains("attributes")) {
+        result = parsed["attributes"];
+      } else {
+        result = nlohmann::json::object();
+      }
+      // For V3, dimension_names is at the root level of zarr.json
+      if (parsed.contains("dimension_names")) {
+        result["dimension_names"] = parsed["dimension_names"];
+      }
+      return result;
+    }
+    // For V2, the entire file is attributes
+    return parsed;
   };
 
   auto make_variable = [variable_name](
@@ -707,11 +765,45 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> OpenVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_store,
   auto metadata = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
                                               parse, kvs_read_future, spec);
 
+  // Fallback for structured Variables whose spec arrives without "metadata"
+  // (e.g. path-based Dataset::Open or Dataset::SelectField, which build a spec
+  // of just driver + kvstore). In that case PrepareStructuredOpenSpec above
+  // cannot detect the struct, so the driver fails asking for a "field"; retry
+  // once with open_as_void set.
+  if (!future_store.status().ok()) {
+    std::string status_message = future_store.status().ToString();
+    if (status_message.find("Must specify a \"field\"") != std::string::npos &&
+        !store_spec.contains("open_as_void")) {
+      auto cpy = json_store;
+      cpy["open_as_void"] = true;
+      // Reconstruct options for the recursive call
+      TransactionalOpenOptions retry_options;
+      retry_options.context = context;
+      retry_options.open_mode = open_mode;
+      return OpenVariable<T, R, M>(cpy, std::move(retry_options));
+    }
+  }
+
   return tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
       tensorstore::InlineExecutor{}, make_variable, metadata, future_store,
       tensorstore::MakeReadyFuture<::nlohmann::json>(suppliedAttributes));
 }
 
+/**
+ * @brief Opens a Variable from a JSON specification (variadic options version).
+ * This overload accepts individual options and converts them to
+ * TransactionalOpenOptions.
+ */
+template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
+          ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic, typename... Option>
+Future<Variable<T, R, M>> OpenVariable(const nlohmann::json& json_store,
+                                       Option&&... options) {
+  TransactionalOpenOptions transact_options;
+  TENSORSTORE_RETURN_IF_ERROR(tensorstore::internal::SetAll(
+      transact_options, std::forward<Option>(options)...));
+  return OpenVariable<T, R, M>(json_store, std::move(transact_options));
+}
+
 /**
  * @brief Opens or creates a Variable object from a JSON specification.
  * Provide an Open method for an existing file...
@@ -729,7 +821,7 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> Open(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
   // situations where we would create new metadata
   if (options.open_mode == constants::kCreateClean ||
       options.open_mode == constants::kCreate) {
-    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto json_schema, ValidateAndProcessJson(json_spec))
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto json_schema, ValidateAndProcessJson(json_spec));
     // extract the json for the store and our metadata
     auto [json_store, metadata] = json_schema;
     // this will write metadata
@@ -740,6 +832,171 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> Open(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
 }
 }  // namespace internal
 
+/**
+ * @brief Shared metadata and user-attribute machinery for Variable-like types.
+ *
+ * Holds the variable identity (name, long name), the raw metadata JSON, and the
+ * mutable UserAttributes together with the change-tracking and publish-flag
+ * bookkeeping that both `Variable` and `HeaderVariable` rely on. Storage and I/O
+ * are deliberately left to the derived classes, since a regular Variable is
+ * backed by a TensorStore while a metadata-only header variable is not.
+ *
+ * This is a non-template base because none of this state depends on the
+ * element type, rank, or read-write mode of the derived class.
+ */
+class VariableBase {
+ public:
+  VariableBase() = default;
+
+  VariableBase(std::string variableName, std::string longName,
+               ::nlohmann::json metadata,
+               std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<UserAttributes>> attributes)
+      : attributes(std::move(attributes)),
+        variableName(std::move(variableName)),
+        longName(std::move(longName)),
+        metadata(std::move(metadata)) {
+    if (this->attributes && *this->attributes) {
+      attributesAddress =
+          reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**this->attributes));
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the name of the variable.
+   */
+  const std::string& get_variable_name() const { return variableName; }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the long name of the variable.
+   */
+  const std::string& get_long_name() const { return longName; }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Attempts to safely update the user attributes.
+   * @tparam T_attrs The optional histogram type. Must be either int32_t or
+   * float (Default: float).
+   * NOTE: This does not commit changes to durable media. See the Dataset
+   * CommitMetadata method to persist changes.
+   */
+  template <typename T_attrs = float>
+  Result<void> UpdateAttributes(const nlohmann::json& newAttrs) {
+    auto res = (*attributes)->template FromJson<T_attrs>(newAttrs);
+    if (res.status().ok()) {
+      // Create a new UserAttributes object and update the inner std::shared_ptr
+      *attributes = std::make_shared<UserAttributes>(res.value());
+    }
+    return res;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the User Attributes as a JSON object.
+   * Returned object is expected to have a parent key of "attributes".
+   */
+  nlohmann::json GetAttributes() const { return (*attributes)->ToJson(); }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the entire metadata of the variable.
+   */
+  nlohmann::json getMetadata() const {
+    auto ret = getReducedMetadata();
+    auto attrs = GetAttributes();
+    if (attrs.is_object() && !attrs.empty()) {
+      if (!ret.contains("metadata")) {
+        ret["metadata"] = nlohmann::json::object();
+      }
+      ret["metadata"].merge_patch(attrs);
+    }
+    return ret;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief A reduced version of the metadata lacking the mutable
+   * UserAttributes. Intended primarily for internal use.
+   */
+  const nlohmann::json getReducedMetadata() const {
+    nlohmann::json ret = metadata;
+    ret["long_name"] = longName;
+    return metadata;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Checks if the User Attributes have changed since construction.
+   */
+  const bool was_updated() const {
+    // We need a double dereference to get the address of the underlying object
+    // This works because the UserAttributes object is immutable and can only be
+    // replaced.
+    std::uintptr_t currentAddress =
+        reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
+    return attributesAddress != currentAddress;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Sets the flag whether the metadata should get republished.
+   * Intended for internal use with the trimming utility.
+   */
+  void set_metadata_publish_flag(const bool shouldPublish) {
+    if (!toPublish) {
+      // This should never be the case, but better safe than sorry
+      toPublish = std::make_shared<std::shared_ptr<bool>>(
+          std::make_shared<bool>(shouldPublish));
+    } else {
+      *toPublish = std::make_shared<bool>(shouldPublish);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets whether the metadata should get republished.
+   */
+  bool should_publish() const {
+    if (toPublish && *toPublish) {
+      // Deref the shared_ptr so we're not increasing refcount
+      return **toPublish;
+    }
+    // If the flag was a nullptr, err on the side of caution and republish
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @brief Gets the original address of the User Attributes.
+   * This method should NEVER be called by the user. It allows for the copy
+   * constructor without re-serializing metadata.
+   */
+  const std::uintptr_t get_attributes_address() const {
+    return attributesAddress;
+  }
+
+  // The data that should remain static, but MAY need to be updated.
+  std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<UserAttributes>> attributes;
+
+ protected:
+  /**
+   * This method should NEVER be called by the user.
+   * Intended to be called as a callback by the Dataset CommitMetadata method
+   * after the updated data is committed to durable media.
+   */
+  void _dataset_only_callback_committed() {
+    // We only want to update the address if the UserAttributes object has
+    // changed location. This indicates a new UserAttributes object has taken
+    // the place of the existing one.
+    if (attributes.get() != nullptr && attributes->get() != nullptr) {
+      attributesAddress = reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
+    }
+  }
+
+  // An identifier for the variable
+  std::string variableName;
+  // optional, default to name
+  std::string longName;
+  // other metadata
+  ::nlohmann::json metadata;
+  // The address of the attributes. This MUST NEVER be touched by the user.
+  std::uintptr_t attributesAddress = 0;
+  // The metadata will need to be updated if the trim util was used on it.
+  std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<bool>> toPublish =
+      std::make_shared<std::shared_ptr<bool>>(std::make_shared<bool>(false));
+};
+
 /**
  * @brief A templated struct representing an MDIO Variable with a tensorstore.
  * This is an MDIO specified zarr V2 tensorstore variable.
@@ -756,7 +1013,7 @@ Future<Variable<T, R, M>> Open(const nlohmann::json& json_spec,
  */
 template <typename T = void, DimensionIndex R = dynamic_rank,
           ReadWriteMode M = ReadWriteMode::dynamic>
-class Variable {
+class Variable : public VariableBase {
  public:
   Variable() = default;
 
@@ -764,28 +1021,20 @@ class Variable {
            const ::nlohmann::json& metdata,
            const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store,
            const std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<UserAttributes>> attributes)
-      : variableName(variableName),
-        longName(longName),
-        metadata(metdata),
-        store(store),
-        attributes(attributes) {
-    attributesAddress = reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>((*attributes).get());
-  }
+      : VariableBase(variableName, longName, metdata, attributes),
+        store(store) {}
 
   // Allows for conversion to compatible types (SourceElement), which should
   // always be possible to void.
   template <typename SourceElement, DimensionIndex SourceRank,
             ReadWriteMode SourceMode>
   Variable(const Variable<SourceElement, SourceRank, SourceMode>& other)
-      : variableName(other.get_variable_name()),
-        longName(other.get_long_name()),
-        metadata(other.getReducedMetadata()),
-        store(other.get_store()),
-        attributes(other.attributes),
-        attributesAddress(other.get_attributes_address()) {}
+      : VariableBase(other.get_variable_name(), other.get_long_name(),
+                     other.getReducedMetadata(), other.attributes),
+        store(other.get_store()) {}
 
   friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const Variable& obj) {
-    os << obj.variableName << "\t" << obj.dimensions() << "\n";
+    os << obj.get_variable_name() << "\t" << obj.dimensions() << "\n";
     os << obj.store.dtype() << "\t" << obj.store.rank();
     return os;
   }
@@ -809,8 +1058,9 @@ class Variable {
                               TransactionalOpenOptions, Option...>),
                           Future<Variable<T, R, M>>>
   Open(const nlohmann::json& json_spec, Option&&... option) {
-    TENSORSTORE_INTERNAL_ASSIGN_OPTIONS_OR_RETURN(TransactionalOpenOptions,
-                                                  options, option)
+    TransactionalOpenOptions options;
+    TENSORSTORE_RETURN_IF_ERROR(tensorstore::internal::SetAll(
+        options, std::forward<Option>(option)...));
     return mdio::internal::Open<T, R, M>(json_spec, std::move(options));
   }
 
@@ -1190,15 +1440,44 @@ class Variable {
     if (!json.contains("metadata")) {
       return absl::NotFoundError("Metadata did not contain key 'metadata'.");
     }
-    if (!json["metadata"].contains("chunks")) {
-      return absl::NotFoundError(
-          "Metadata['attributes'] did not contain key 'chunks'.");
+    const auto& metadata = json["metadata"];
+
+    auto parse_chunk_array =
+        [](const nlohmann::json& chunk_json) -> Result<std::vector<int64_t>> {
+      if (!chunk_json.is_array()) {
+        return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Chunk shape must be an array.");
+      }
+      return chunk_json.get<std::vector<int64_t>>();  // NOLINT
+    };
+
+    if (metadata.contains("chunks")) {
+      return parse_chunk_array(metadata["chunks"]);
     }
-    if (!json["metadata"]["chunks"].is_array()) {
-      return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Metadata['chunks'] is not an array.");
+
+    // Zarr v3 chunk grid configuration uses chunk_shape (or chunkShape).
+    if (metadata.contains("chunk_grid") &&
+        metadata["chunk_grid"].contains("configuration")) {
+      const auto& config = metadata["chunk_grid"]["configuration"];
+      if (config.contains("chunk_shape")) {
+        return parse_chunk_array(config["chunk_shape"]);
+      }
+      if (config.contains("chunkShape")) {
+        return parse_chunk_array(config["chunkShape"]);
+      }
     }
-    return json["metadata"]["chunks"]
-        .get<std::vector<long int>>();  // NOLINT: Tensorstore convention
+
+    if (metadata.contains("chunkGrid") &&
+        metadata["chunkGrid"].contains("configuration")) {
+      const auto& config = metadata["chunkGrid"]["configuration"];
+      if (config.contains("chunk_shape")) {
+        return parse_chunk_array(config["chunk_shape"]);
+      }
+      if (config.contains("chunkShape")) {
+        return parse_chunk_array(config["chunkShape"]);
+      }
+    }
+
+    return absl::NotFoundError("Metadata did not contain chunk shape.");
   }
 
   /**
@@ -1251,7 +1530,8 @@ class Variable {
         output_json["attributes"]["coordinates"] = output_json["coordinates"];
         output_json.erase("coordinates");
       }
-      std::string outpath = "/.zattrs";
+      // std::string outpath = "/.zattrs";
+      std::string outpath = ".zattrs";
       if (isCloudStore) {
         outpath = ".zattrs";
       }
@@ -1299,59 +1579,6 @@ class Variable {
     return pair.future;
   }
 
-  /**
-   * @brief Attempts to safely update the user attributes of a Variable
-   * (["metadata"]["attributes"] and/or ["metadata"]["statsV1"]).
-   * @tparam T_attrs The optional type of the histogram. Must be either int32_t
-   * or float (Default: float)
-   * @param newAttrs The JSON representation of a UserAttribute.
-   * @return An OK status if the attributes were successfully updated, otherwise
-   * an error and the attributes remain unchanged.
-   * @details \b Intended_Usage
-   * @code
-   * // Status check ignored for brevity
-   * auto var = my_dataset.variables.at("my_variable_key").value();
-   * nlohmann::json to_update = var.GetAttributes();
-   * to_update["attributes"]["new_attr"] = "new_value";
-   * std::vector<int32_t> binCenters;
-   * // Populate with your data as needed
-   * to_update["statsV1"]["histogram"]["binCenters"] = binCenters;
-   * // NOTE: The vector is of type int32_t. We must pass the type as a
-   * template argument.
-   * auto update_result = var.UpdateAttributes<int32_t>(to_update);
-   * if (!update_result.status().ok()) {
-   *      // In this case nothing will happen. We output an error and move on
-   *      // with what previously existed.
-   *      std::cerr << "Failed to update attributes: " <<
-   *      update_result.status() << std::endl;
-   * }
-   * @endcode
-   * NOTE: This does not commit changes to durable media.
-   * Please see CommitMetadata method in the Dataset to commit changes.
-   */
-  template <typename T_attrs = float>
-  Result<void> UpdateAttributes(const nlohmann::json& newAttrs) {
-    auto res = (*attributes)->template FromJson<T_attrs>(newAttrs);
-    if (res.status().ok()) {
-      // Create a new UserAttributes object and update the inner std::shared_ptr
-      *attributes = std::make_shared<UserAttributes>(res.value());
-    }
-    return res;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets the User Attributes of the Variable as a JSON object.
-   * Returned object is expected to have a parent key of "attributes".
-   * This is expected to be the exact copy of the attributes field.
-   * @see
-   * https://mdio-python.readthedocs.io/en/v1/data_models/version_1.html#mdio.schema.v1.variable.VariableMetadata.attributes
-   * @return The User Attributes in JSON form.
-   */
-  nlohmann::json GetAttributes() const {
-    // Dereference the outer std::shared_ptr to get the inner std::shared_ptr
-    return (*attributes)->ToJson();
-  }
-
   Result<nlohmann::json> get_units() const {
     auto attrs = GetAttributes();
 
@@ -1364,66 +1591,6 @@ class Variable {
     return absl::InvalidArgumentError("This Variable does not contain units");
   }
 
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets the entire metadata of the Variable.
-   * Returned object is expected to have a parent key of "metadata".
-   * @return The metadata in JSON form
-   */
-  nlohmann::json getMetadata() const {
-    auto ret = getReducedMetadata();
-    auto attrs = GetAttributes();
-    // Check for not being a `nlohmann::json::object()`
-    if (attrs.is_object() && !attrs.empty()) {
-      if (!ret.contains("metadata")) {
-        ret["metadata"] = nlohmann::json::object();
-      }
-      ret["metadata"].merge_patch(attrs);
-    }
-    return ret;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief A reduced version of the metadata
-   * NOTE: This may only be useful for internal uses. See `getMetadata()` for
-   * the full metadata. This version should lack the mutable UserAttributes
-   * portions, if they exist.
-   * @return The reduced metadata in JSON form
-   */
-  const nlohmann::json getReducedMetadata() const {
-    nlohmann::json ret = metadata;
-    ret["long_name"] = longName;
-    return metadata;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Checks if the User Attributes has changed in the Variable.
-   * @return true if the User Attributes has changed, false otherwise.
-   */
-  const bool was_updated() const {
-    // We need a double dereference to get the address of the underlying object
-    // This works because the UserAttributes object is immutable and can only be
-    // replaced.
-    std::uintptr_t currentAddress =
-        reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
-    return attributesAddress != currentAddress;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Sets the flag whether the metadata should get republished.
-   * Intended for internal use with the trimming utility.
-   *
-   * @param shouldPublish True if the metadata should get republished.
-   */
-  void set_metadata_publish_flag(const bool shouldPublish) {
-    if (!toPublish) {
-      // This should never be the case, but better safe than sorry
-      toPublish = std::make_shared<std::shared_ptr<bool>>(
-          std::make_shared<bool>(shouldPublish));
-    } else {
-      *toPublish = std::make_shared<bool>(shouldPublish);
-    }
-  }
-
   /**
    * @brief A struct representing the half open interval of a dimension.
    */
@@ -1497,18 +1664,6 @@ class Variable {
   }
 
   // ===========================Member data getters===========================
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets the name of the variable.
-   * @return The name of the variable.
-   */
-  const std::string& get_variable_name() const { return variableName; }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets the long name of the variable.
-   * @return The long name of the variable.
-   */
-  const std::string& get_long_name() const { return longName; }
-
   /**
    * @brief Gets the underlying tensorstore of the variable.
    * @return The tensorstore of the variable.
@@ -1521,66 +1676,9 @@ class Variable {
     store = new_store;
   }
 
-  // The data that should remain static, but MAY need to be updated.
-  std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<UserAttributes>> attributes;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets the original address of the User Attributes.
-   * This method should NEVER be called by the user.
-   * It allows for the copy constructor without re-serializing metadata.
-   * @return The original address of the User Attributes.
-   */
-  const std::uintptr_t get_attributes_address() const {
-    return attributesAddress;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Gets whether the metadata should get republished.
-   *
-   * @return True if the metadata should get republished.
-   */
-  bool should_publish() const {
-    if (toPublish && *toPublish) {
-      // Deref the shared_ptr so we're not increasing refcount
-      return **toPublish;
-    }
-    // If the flag was a nullptr, err on the side of caution and republish
-    return true;
-  }
-
  private:
-  /**
-   * This method should NEVER be called by the user.
-   * This method is intended to be called as a callback by the Dataset
-   * CommitMetadata method after the updated data is committed to durable media.
-   * @brief Updates the current address of the User Attributes.
-   */
-  void _dataset_only_callback_committed() {
-    // We only want to update the address if the UserAttributes object has
-    // changed location This indicates a new UserAttributes object has taken the
-    // place of the existing one.
-    if (attributes.get() != nullptr && attributes->get() != nullptr) {
-      std::uintptr_t newAddress =
-          reinterpret_cast<std::uintptr_t>(&(**attributes));
-      attributesAddress = newAddress;
-    }
-    // It is fine that this will only change in the "collection" instance of the
-    // Variable, because that is the only one that will be operated on by the
-    // Dataset commit
-  }
-  // An identifier for the variable
-  std::string variableName;
-  // optional, default to name
-  std::string longName;
-  // other metadata
-  ::nlohmann::json metadata;
   // delegate the I/O to the tensorstore
   tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M> store;
-  // The address of the attributes. This MUST NEVER be touched by the user.
-  std::uintptr_t attributesAddress;
-  // The metadata will need to be updated if the trim util was used on it.
-  std::shared_ptr<std::shared_ptr<bool>> toPublish =
-      std::make_shared<std::shared_ptr<bool>>(std::make_shared<bool>(false));
 };
 
 // Tensorstore Array's don't have an IndexDomain and so they can't be slice with
@@ -1853,7 +1951,7 @@ Result<VariableData<T, R, OriginKind>> from_variable(
   // templated. this can fail if the types are inconsistent, at which point it
   // will return with a status.
   MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto array,
-                        tensorstore::StaticDataTypeCast<T>(std::move(_array)))
+                        tensorstore::StaticDataTypeCast<T>(std::move(_array)));
 
   auto labeled_array = LabeledArray<T, R, OriginKind>{domain, std::move(array)};
 
diff --git a/mdio/variable_test.cc b/mdio/variable_test.cc
index 79cfeb8..48c4da5 100644
--- a/mdio/variable_test.cc
+++ b/mdio/variable_test.cc
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@
 #include <string>
 #include <utility>
 
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/compressor.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/driver_impl.h"
 #include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/dtype.h"
@@ -35,6 +36,74 @@
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
 // clang-format on
 
+namespace {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns a string representation of the Zarr version for naming.
+ */
+std::string ZarrVersionToString(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "V3" : "V2";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the base path for test data based on Zarr version.
+ */
+std::string GetBasePath(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "variable_test_v3"
+                                                 : "variable_test";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the TensorStore driver name for the given version.
+ */
+std::string GetTestDriverName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version) {
+  return version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3 ? "zarr3" : "zarr";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a variable spec for testing based on Zarr version.
+ */
+::nlohmann::json CreateTestVariableSpec(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version,
+                                        const std::string& name) {
+  nlohmann::json spec;
+  spec["driver"] = GetTestDriverName(version);
+  spec["kvstore"]["driver"] = "file";
+  spec["kvstore"]["path"] = name;
+
+  if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3) {
+    spec["metadata"]["data_type"] = "int16";
+    spec["metadata"]["shape"] = nlohmann::json::array({500, 500});
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["name"] = "regular";
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_grid"]["configuration"]["chunk_shape"] =
+        nlohmann::json::array({100, 50});
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_key_encoding"]["name"] = "default";
+    spec["metadata"]["chunk_key_encoding"]["configuration"]["separator"] = "/";
+    nlohmann::json bytes_codec;
+    bytes_codec["name"] = "bytes";
+    spec["metadata"]["codecs"] = nlohmann::json::array({bytes_codec});
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["job status"] = "win";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["project code"] = "fail";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["unitsV1"] = {"m", "ft"};
+    spec["attributes"]["long_name"] = "foooooo .....";
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_names"] = {"x", "y"};
+  } else {
+    spec["metadata"]["compressor"]["id"] = "blosc";
+    spec["metadata"]["dtype"] = "<i2";
+    spec["metadata"]["shape"] = {500, 500};
+    spec["metadata"]["chunks"] = {100, 50};
+    spec["metadata"]["dimension_separator"] = "/";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["job status"] = "win";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["attributes"]["project code"] = "fail";
+    spec["attributes"]["metadata"]["unitsV1"] = {"m", "ft"};
+    spec["attributes"]["long_name"] = "foooooo .....";
+    spec["attributes"]["dimension_names"] = {"x", "y"};
+  }
+
+  return spec;
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
 // clang-format off
 ::nlohmann::json json_good = ::nlohmann::json::object({
     {"driver", "zarr"},
@@ -156,7 +225,7 @@ mdio::Result<::nlohmann::json> PopulateStore(const nlohmann::json& json_good) {
       mdio::Variable<>::Open(json_good, mdio::constants::kCreateClean)
           .result());
 
-  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variableDataFuture, result.Read().result())
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto variableDataFuture, result.Read().result());
 
   // Create a 500x500 array with the data to write
   auto data = tensorstore::AllocateArray<int16_t>({500, 500});
@@ -1276,4 +1345,135 @@ TEST(VariableData, fromVariableFillTest) {
       << variableData.value().get_data_accessor().data()[0];
 }
 
+// ============================================================================
+// Parameterized Variable Tests for V2/V3
+// ============================================================================
+
+class VariableVersionTest
+    : public ::testing::TestWithParam<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion> {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    version_ = GetParam();
+    base_path_ = GetBasePath(version_);
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_);
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override { std::filesystem::remove_all(base_path_); }
+
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion version_;
+  std::string base_path_;
+};
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, open) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto variable =
+      mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean).result();
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(variable.ok()) << variable.status();
+
+  EXPECT_THAT(variable->dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(500, 500));
+  EXPECT_THAT(variable->dimensions().labels(),
+              ::testing::ElementsAre("x", "y"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable->dtype(), mdio::constants::kInt16);
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable->get_variable_name(), base_path_);
+  EXPECT_EQ(variable->get_long_name(), std::string("foooooo ....."));
+}
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, slice) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto variable =
+      mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean).value();
+
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc1 = {"x", 0, 5, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> desc2 = {"y", 5, 11, 1};
+
+  auto result = variable.slice(desc2, desc1);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+
+  auto domain = result->dimensions();
+  EXPECT_THAT(domain.labels(), ::testing::ElementsAre("x", "y"));
+  EXPECT_THAT(domain.origin(), ::testing::ElementsAre(0, 5));
+  EXPECT_THAT(domain.shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(5, 6));
+}
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, rank) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto variable = mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(variable.status().ok()) << variable.status();
+  auto rank = variable.value().rank();
+  EXPECT_EQ(rank, 2);
+}
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, readWrite) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto variableRes =
+      mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(variableRes.status().ok()) << variableRes.status();
+  auto variable = variableRes.value();
+
+  auto varDataRes = variable.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(varDataRes.status().ok()) << varDataRes.status();
+  auto varData = varDataRes.value();
+
+  auto data = reinterpret_cast<int16_t*>(varData.get_data_accessor().data());
+  data[0] = 1234;
+  data[1] = 5678;
+
+  auto writeFut = variable.Write(varData);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(writeFut.status().ok()) << writeFut.status();
+
+  // Re-read and verify
+  auto rereadFut = variable.Read();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(rereadFut.status().ok()) << rereadFut.status();
+  auto rereadData = rereadFut.value();
+  auto rereadPtr =
+      reinterpret_cast<int16_t*>(rereadData.get_data_accessor().data());
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(rereadPtr[0], 1234);
+  EXPECT_EQ(rereadPtr[1], 5678);
+}
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, getIntervals) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto varRes = mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(varRes.status().ok()) << varRes.status();
+  auto var = varRes.value();
+
+  auto intervalRes = var.get_intervals();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(intervalRes.status().ok()) << intervalRes.status();
+  auto intervals = intervalRes.value();
+  ASSERT_EQ(intervals.size(), 2);
+}
+
+TEST_P(VariableVersionTest, outOfBoundsSlice) {
+  auto spec = CreateTestVariableSpec(version_, base_path_);
+  auto var =
+      mdio::Variable<>::Open(spec, mdio::constants::kCreateClean).result();
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(var.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(var->dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(500, 500));
+
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> x_inbounds = {"x", 100, 250, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> y_inbounds = {"y", 0, 500, 1};
+  mdio::RangeDescriptor<mdio::Index> x_outbounds = {"x", 250, 1000, 1};
+
+  auto inbounds = var.value().slice(x_inbounds, y_inbounds);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(inbounds.status().ok()) << inbounds.status();
+
+  auto outbounds = var.value().slice(x_outbounds, y_inbounds);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(outbounds.status().ok()) << outbounds.status();
+
+  auto badDomain = outbounds.value();
+  EXPECT_THAT(badDomain.dimensions().shape(), ::testing::ElementsAre(250, 500))
+      << badDomain.dimensions();
+}
+
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_SUITE_P(
+    ZarrVersions, VariableVersionTest,
+    ::testing::Values(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2,
+                      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3),
+    [](const ::testing::TestParamInfo<mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion>& info) {
+      return ZarrVersionToString(info.param);
+    });
+
 }  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/zarr/zarr.h b/mdio/zarr/zarr.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d85b89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/zarr/zarr.h
@@ -0,0 +1,272 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#ifndef MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_H_
+#define MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_H_
+
+/**
+ * @file zarr.h
+ * @brief Unified header for Zarr support in MDIO.
+ *
+ * This header provides a unified interface for working with both Zarr V2 and
+ * Zarr V3 formats. It abstracts the differences between the two versions
+ * and provides version-agnostic operations where possible.
+ *
+ * Key features:
+ * - Zarr V2: Full support including consolidated metadata (.zmetadata)
+ * - Zarr V3: Support without consolidated metadata (as per Zarr V3 spec)
+ *
+ * Usage:
+ * @code
+ * #include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
+ *
+ * // Detect version from existing store
+ * auto version = mdio::zarr::DetectVersion(kvstore);
+ *
+ * // Write metadata for the appropriate version
+ * if (version == mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2) {
+ *   mdio::zarr::v2::WriteConsolidatedMetadata(metadata, variables);
+ * } else {
+ *   mdio::zarr::v3::WriteMetadata(metadata, variables);
+ * }
+ * @endcode
+ */
+
+#include <string>
+#include <tuple>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr_v2.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr_v3.h"
+
+namespace mdio {
+namespace zarr {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Writes dataset metadata using the appropriate format for the version.
+ *
+ * For V2, this writes consolidated metadata (.zmetadata, .zgroup, .zattrs).
+ * For V3, this writes only the root zarr.json (no consolidated metadata).
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version to use.
+ * @param dataset_metadata The metadata for the dataset.
+ * @param json_variables The JSON variables.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
+ * @return An `mdio::Future<void>` representing the asynchronous write.
+ */
+inline Future<void> WriteDatasetMetadata(
+    ZarrVersion version, const ::nlohmann::json& dataset_metadata,
+    const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return v3::WriteMetadata(dataset_metadata, json_variables, context);
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return v2::WriteConsolidatedMetadata(dataset_metadata, json_variables,
+                                           context);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reads dataset metadata using the appropriate format for the version.
+ *
+ * For V2, this reads from consolidated metadata (.zmetadata).
+ * For V3, this reads from zarr.json and discovers arrays.
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version to use.
+ * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset.
+ * @param kvs_future A future to the KvStore.
+ * @return A future containing dataset metadata and variable JSON specs.
+ */
+inline Future<std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>
+ReadDatasetMetadata(ZarrVersion version, const std::string& dataset_path,
+                    tensorstore::Future<tensorstore::KvStore> kvs_future) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return v3::ReadMetadata(dataset_path, kvs_future);
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return v2::ReadConsolidatedMetadata(dataset_path, kvs_future);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the driver name for the given version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @return std::string The driver name.
+ */
+inline std::string GetDriverNameForVersion(ZarrVersion version) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return std::string(v3::kDriverName);
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return std::string(v2::kDriverName);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Converts a generic dtype string to the appropriate format.
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @param dtype The input dtype string.
+ * @return Result<nlohmann::json> The dtype in the appropriate format.
+ */
+inline Result<nlohmann::json> ConvertDtype(ZarrVersion version,
+                                           const std::string& dtype) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3: {
+      MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto result, v3::ToZarrDtype(dtype));
+      return result;
+    }
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default: {
+      MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(auto result, v2::ToZarrDtype(dtype));
+      return nlohmann::json(result);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a variable spec stub for the given version.
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @param variable_name The name of the variable.
+ * @param path The path prefix.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The variable spec stub.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateVariableSpec(ZarrVersion version,
+                                         const std::string& variable_name,
+                                         const std::string& path = "") {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return v3::CreateVariableSpec(variable_name, path);
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return v2::CreateVariableSpec(variable_name, path);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the struct field names from a variable's metadata.
+ *
+ * Structured (record) dtypes are laid out differently between Zarr V2 and V3,
+ * so this dispatches to the version-specific parser. The metadata is expected
+ * to contain a "dtype" key (V2) or a "data_type" key (V3).
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version of the metadata.
+ * @param metadata The variable "metadata" object.
+ * @return Field names in declaration order, or empty if not a structured dtype.
+ */
+inline std::vector<std::string> GetStructFieldNames(
+    ZarrVersion version, const nlohmann::json& metadata) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      if (metadata.contains("data_type")) {
+        return v3::GetStructFieldNames(metadata["data_type"]);
+      }
+      return {};
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      if (metadata.contains("dtype")) {
+        return v2::GetStructFieldNames(metadata["dtype"]);
+      }
+      return {};
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Checks whether a variable's metadata describes a structured dtype.
+ *
+ * @param version The Zarr version of the metadata.
+ * @param metadata The variable "metadata" object.
+ * @return bool True if the dtype is a structured (record) dtype.
+ */
+inline bool IsStructuredDType(ZarrVersion version,
+                              const nlohmann::json& metadata) {
+  return !GetStructFieldNames(version, metadata).empty();
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Checks if a JSON spec is for a Zarr V3 store.
+ *
+ * @param json_spec The JSON specification.
+ * @return bool True if the spec is for Zarr V3.
+ */
+inline bool IsV3Spec(const nlohmann::json& json_spec) {
+  if (json_spec.contains("driver")) {
+    std::string driver = json_spec["driver"].get<std::string>();
+    return driver == "zarr3";
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the Zarr version from a JSON spec.
+ *
+ * @param json_spec The JSON specification.
+ * @return ZarrVersion The detected version.
+ */
+inline ZarrVersion GetVersionFromSpec(const nlohmann::json& json_spec) {
+  if (IsV3Spec(json_spec)) {
+    return ZarrVersion::kV3;
+  }
+  return ZarrVersion::kV2;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Updates a JSON spec to use the specified Zarr version.
+ *
+ * @param json_spec The JSON specification to update.
+ * @param version The target Zarr version.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The updated specification.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json UpdateSpecVersion(nlohmann::json json_spec,
+                                        ZarrVersion version) {
+  json_spec["driver"] = GetDriverNameForVersion(version);
+  return json_spec;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Enables `open_as_void` on a spec describing a structured dtype.
+ *
+ * Structured (record) dtypes must be opened as void in both the zarr and zarr3
+ * drivers. This centralizes that decision so callers do not have to repeat the
+ * version detection and struct check: when the spec carries a "metadata" object
+ * describing a structured dtype, and the caller has neither selected a "field"
+ * nor already set "open_as_void", the flag is enabled.
+ *
+ * Specs that are not structured, that already pick a field, that already set the
+ * flag, or that carry no "metadata" are returned unchanged.
+ *
+ * @param json_spec The variable/store spec.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The (possibly) updated spec.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(nlohmann::json json_spec) {
+  if (!json_spec.contains("metadata") || json_spec.contains("field") ||
+      json_spec.contains("open_as_void")) {
+    return json_spec;
+  }
+  if (IsStructuredDType(GetVersionFromSpec(json_spec), json_spec["metadata"])) {
+    json_spec["open_as_void"] = true;
+  }
+  return json_spec;
+}
+
+}  // namespace zarr
+}  // namespace mdio
+
+#endif  // MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_H_
diff --git a/mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h b/mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de40e2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h
@@ -0,0 +1,344 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#ifndef MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_DRIVER_H_
+#define MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_DRIVER_H_
+
+#include <string>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "mdio/impl.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/operations.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+
+// clang-format off
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
+// clang-format on
+
+namespace mdio {
+namespace zarr {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Enumeration representing supported Zarr format versions.
+ */
+enum class ZarrVersion {
+  kV2 = 2,  ///< Zarr V2 format
+  kV3 = 3   ///< Zarr V3 format
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the default Zarr version to use.
+ * @return ZarrVersion The default version (V2 for backward compatibility).
+ */
+inline ZarrVersion GetDefaultVersion() { return ZarrVersion::kV2; }
+
+/**
+ * @brief Returns the TensorStore driver name for the given Zarr version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @return std::string The driver name ("zarr" for V2, "zarr3" for V3).
+ */
+inline std::string GetDriverName(ZarrVersion version) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return "zarr3";
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return "zarr";
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Parses a Zarr version from a string or integer.
+ * @param version_spec JSON value that may be an integer (2 or 3) or string
+ * ("2", "3", "v2", "v3").
+ * @return Result<ZarrVersion> The parsed version or an error.
+ */
+inline Result<ZarrVersion> ParseVersion(const nlohmann::json& version_spec) {
+  if (version_spec.is_number_integer()) {
+    int ver = version_spec.get<int>();
+    if (ver == 2) return ZarrVersion::kV2;
+    if (ver == 3) return ZarrVersion::kV3;
+    return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+        "Invalid zarr version: " + std::to_string(ver) +
+        ". Supported versions are 2 and 3.");
+  }
+  if (version_spec.is_string()) {
+    std::string ver = version_spec.get<std::string>();
+    if (ver == "2" || ver == "v2" || ver == "V2") return ZarrVersion::kV2;
+    if (ver == "3" || ver == "v3" || ver == "V3") return ZarrVersion::kV3;
+    return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+        "Invalid zarr version string: '" + ver +
+        "'. Supported versions are '2', '3', 'v2', 'v3'.");
+  }
+  return absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+      "Invalid zarr version specification. Expected integer or string.");
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Detects the Zarr version from an existing store by examining metadata
+ * files.
+ * @param kvstore The KvStore to examine.
+ * @return Future<ZarrVersion> The detected version or an error if unable to
+ * determine.
+ */
+inline Future<ZarrVersion> DetectVersion(const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
+  // Check for zarr.json first (V3 indicator)
+  auto v3_check = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "zarr.json");
+
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<ZarrVersion>::Make();
+
+  v3_check.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [promise = pair.promise,
+       kvstore](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+                    v3_result) mutable {
+        if (v3_result.result().ok() && v3_result.value().has_value()) {
+          promise.SetResult(ZarrVersion::kV3);
+          return;
+        }
+
+        // Check for .zgroup or .zmetadata (V2 indicators)
+        auto v2_check = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, ".zgroup");
+        v2_check.ExecuteWhenReady(
+            [promise = std::move(promise)](
+                tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+                    v2_result) mutable {
+              if (v2_result.result().ok() && v2_result.value().has_value()) {
+                promise.SetResult(ZarrVersion::kV2);
+              } else {
+                // Default to V2 if we can't determine
+                promise.SetResult(ZarrVersion::kV2);
+              }
+            });
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Base configuration for Zarr operations.
+ */
+struct ZarrConfig {
+  /// The Zarr format version to use.
+  ZarrVersion version = ZarrVersion::kV2;
+
+  /// Whether to use consolidated metadata (only applicable for V2).
+  bool use_consolidated_metadata = true;
+
+  /// The dimension separator to use.
+  std::string dimension_separator = "/";
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Checks if consolidated metadata is supported for the given version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @return bool True if consolidated metadata is supported.
+ */
+inline bool SupportsConsolidatedMetadata(ZarrVersion version) {
+  // Only Zarr V2 supports consolidated metadata
+  return version == ZarrVersion::kV2;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the metadata file name for the given Zarr version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @return std::string The metadata file name.
+ */
+inline std::string GetGroupMetadataFileName(ZarrVersion version) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return "zarr.json";
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return ".zgroup";
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the array metadata file name for the given Zarr version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @param array_name The name of the array (used in path construction).
+ * @return std::string The array metadata file path.
+ */
+inline std::string GetArrayMetadataFileName(ZarrVersion version,
+                                            const std::string& array_name) {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      return array_name + "/zarr.json";
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      return array_name + "/.zarray";
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the attributes file name for the given Zarr version.
+ * @param version The Zarr version.
+ * @param array_name The name of the array (empty for root attributes).
+ * @return std::string The attributes file path.
+ */
+inline std::string GetAttributesFileName(ZarrVersion version,
+                                         const std::string& array_name = "") {
+  switch (version) {
+    case ZarrVersion::kV3:
+      // In V3, attributes are embedded in zarr.json
+      if (array_name.empty()) {
+        return "zarr.json";
+      }
+      return array_name + "/zarr.json";
+    case ZarrVersion::kV2:
+    default:
+      if (array_name.empty()) {
+        return ".zattrs";
+      }
+      return array_name + "/.zattrs";
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the consolidated metadata file name (V2 only).
+ * @return std::string The consolidated metadata file name.
+ */
+inline std::string GetConsolidatedMetadataFileName() { return ".zmetadata"; }
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Shared Path and Driver Utilities
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * @brief Infers the kvstore driver from a path prefix.
+ * @param path The dataset path.
+ * @return The driver name ("file", "gcs", or "s3").
+ */
+inline std::string InferDriverFromPath(const std::string& path) {
+  if (path.length() > 5) {
+    if (path.substr(0, 5) == "gs://") return "gcs";
+    if (path.substr(0, 5) == "s3://") return "s3";
+  }
+  return "file";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Normalizes a path by removing trailing slashes.
+ * @param path The input path.
+ * @return The normalized path without trailing slashes.
+ */
+inline std::string NormalizePath(const std::string& path) {
+  std::string result = path;
+  while (!result.empty() && result.back() == '/') {
+    result.pop_back();
+  }
+  return result;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Normalizes a path by ensuring it has a trailing slash.
+ * @param path The input path.
+ * @return The normalized path with a trailing slash.
+ */
+inline std::string NormalizePathWithSlash(const std::string& path) {
+  std::string result = path;
+  if (!result.empty() && result.back() != '/') {
+    result.push_back('/');
+  }
+  return result;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts bucket and path from a cloud URL.
+ * @param url The full cloud URL (gs://bucket/path or s3://bucket/path).
+ * @return A pair of (bucket, path).
+ */
+inline std::pair<std::string, std::string> ExtractCloudPath(
+    const std::string& url) {
+  if (url.length() <= 5) return {"", ""};
+  std::string without_scheme = url.substr(5);
+  size_t bucket_end = without_scheme.find('/');
+  if (bucket_end == std::string::npos) {
+    return {without_scheme, ""};
+  }
+  return {without_scheme.substr(0, bucket_end),
+          without_scheme.substr(bucket_end + 1)};
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Shared JSON Utilities
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * @brief Safely parses JSON from a kvstore read result.
+ * @param read_result The read result containing raw bytes.
+ * @return Result containing parsed JSON or an error.
+ */
+inline Result<nlohmann::json> ParseJsonFromReadResult(
+    const tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult& read_result) {
+  if (!read_result.has_value()) {
+    return absl::NotFoundError("Read result has no value");
+  }
+  try {
+    return nlohmann::json::parse(std::string(read_result.value));
+  } catch (const nlohmann::json::parse_error& e) {
+    return absl::InvalidArgumentError(std::string("JSON parse error: ") +
+                                      e.what());
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Safely gets a string value from JSON.
+ * @param json The JSON object.
+ * @param key The key to look up.
+ * @param default_value The default if key doesn't exist.
+ * @return The string value or default.
+ */
+inline std::string GetJsonString(const nlohmann::json& json,
+                                 const std::string& key,
+                                 const std::string& default_value = "") {
+  if (json.contains(key) && json[key].is_string()) {
+    return json[key].get<std::string>();
+  }
+  return default_value;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Safely gets a JSON object value.
+ * @param json The JSON object.
+ * @param key The key to look up.
+ * @return The object value or empty object.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json GetJsonObject(const nlohmann::json& json,
+                                    const std::string& key) {
+  if (json.contains(key) && json[key].is_object()) {
+    return json[key];
+  }
+  return nlohmann::json::object();
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the variable name from a key path (e.g., "varname/.zarray").
+ * @param key The full key path.
+ * @return The variable name portion.
+ */
+inline std::string ExtractVariableName(const std::string& key) {
+  size_t slash_pos = key.find('/');
+  if (slash_pos != std::string::npos) {
+    return key.substr(0, slash_pos);
+  }
+  return key;
+}
+
+}  // namespace zarr
+}  // namespace mdio
+
+#endif  // MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_DRIVER_H_
diff --git a/mdio/zarr/zarr_test.cc b/mdio/zarr/zarr_test.cc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c6d8fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/zarr/zarr_test.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,1186 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr.h"
+
+#include <gmock/gmock.h>
+#include <gtest/gtest.h>
+
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <filesystem>
+#include <fstream>
+#include <string>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/operations.h"
+
+// clang-format off
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
+// clang-format on
+
+namespace {
+
+// =============================================================================
+// ZarrDriver Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+namespace ZarrDriverTests {
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetDefaultVersion) {
+  auto version = mdio::zarr::GetDefaultVersion();
+  EXPECT_EQ(version, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetDriverName_V2) {
+  auto name = mdio::zarr::GetDriverName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(name, "zarr");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetDriverName_V3) {
+  auto name = mdio::zarr::GetDriverName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(name, "zarr3");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_Integer_V2) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = 2;
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_Integer_V3) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = 3;
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_String_V2) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = "2";
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+
+  version_spec = "v2";
+  result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_String_V3) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = "3";
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+
+  version_spec = "v3";
+  result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_Invalid) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = 4;
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+
+  version_spec = "v4";
+  result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_InvalidType_Array) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = nlohmann::json::array({2, 3});
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Expected integer or string"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_InvalidType_Object) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = {{"version", 2}};
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Expected integer or string"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_InvalidType_Null) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = nullptr;
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Expected integer or string"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseVersion_InvalidType_Boolean) {
+  nlohmann::json version_spec = true;
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::ParseVersion(version_spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(result.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("Expected integer or string"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ZarrConfig_DefaultValues) {
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrConfig config;
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(config.version, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(config.use_consolidated_metadata);
+  EXPECT_EQ(config.dimension_separator, "/");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ZarrConfig_CustomValues) {
+  mdio::zarr::ZarrConfig config;
+  config.version = mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3;
+  config.use_consolidated_metadata = false;
+  config.dimension_separator = ".";
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(config.version, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(config.use_consolidated_metadata);
+  EXPECT_EQ(config.dimension_separator, ".");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, SupportsConsolidatedMetadata_V2) {
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      mdio::zarr::SupportsConsolidatedMetadata(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, SupportsConsolidatedMetadata_V3) {
+  // V3 does NOT support consolidated metadata
+  EXPECT_FALSE(
+      mdio::zarr::SupportsConsolidatedMetadata(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetGroupMetadataFileName_V2) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetGroupMetadataFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, ".zgroup");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetGroupMetadataFileName_V3) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetGroupMetadataFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "zarr.json");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetArrayMetadataFileName_V2) {
+  auto filename = mdio::zarr::GetArrayMetadataFileName(
+      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, "myarray");
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "myarray/.zarray");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetArrayMetadataFileName_V3) {
+  auto filename = mdio::zarr::GetArrayMetadataFileName(
+      mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, "myarray");
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "myarray/zarr.json");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetAttributesFileName_V2_Root) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetAttributesFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, ".zattrs");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetAttributesFileName_V2_Array) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetAttributesFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, "arr");
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "arr/.zattrs");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetAttributesFileName_V3_Root) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetAttributesFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "zarr.json");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetAttributesFileName_V3_Array) {
+  auto filename =
+      mdio::zarr::GetAttributesFileName(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, "arr");
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, "arr/zarr.json");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetConsolidatedMetadataFileName) {
+  auto filename = mdio::zarr::GetConsolidatedMetadataFileName();
+  EXPECT_EQ(filename, ".zmetadata");
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Path and Driver Utility Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, InferDriverFromPath_LocalFile) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("/path/to/data"), "file");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("relative/path"), "file");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("./data"), "file");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, InferDriverFromPath_GCS) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("gs://bucket/path"), "gcs");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("gs://my-bucket/nested/path"),
+            "gcs");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, InferDriverFromPath_S3) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("s3://bucket/path"), "s3");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("s3://my-bucket/nested/path"),
+            "s3");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, InferDriverFromPath_ShortPaths) {
+  // Paths shorter than 5 chars should default to file
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath("abc"), "file");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::InferDriverFromPath(""), "file");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePath_RemovesTrailingSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePath("/path/to/data/"), "/path/to/data");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePath("/path/to/data///"), "/path/to/data");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePath_NoTrailingSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePath("/path/to/data"), "/path/to/data");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePath_EmptyPath) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePath(""), "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePath("/"), "");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePathWithSlash_AddsTrailingSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash("/path/to/data"),
+            "/path/to/data/");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePathWithSlash_AlreadyHasSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash("/path/to/data/"),
+            "/path/to/data/");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, NormalizePathWithSlash_EmptyPath) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::NormalizePathWithSlash(""), "");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractCloudPath_GCS) {
+  auto [bucket, path] =
+      mdio::zarr::ExtractCloudPath("gs://my-bucket/path/to/data");
+  EXPECT_EQ(bucket, "my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_EQ(path, "path/to/data");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractCloudPath_S3) {
+  auto [bucket, path] =
+      mdio::zarr::ExtractCloudPath("s3://my-bucket/nested/path");
+  EXPECT_EQ(bucket, "my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_EQ(path, "nested/path");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractCloudPath_BucketOnly) {
+  auto [bucket, path] = mdio::zarr::ExtractCloudPath("gs://my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_EQ(bucket, "my-bucket");
+  EXPECT_EQ(path, "");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractCloudPath_ShortUrl) {
+  auto [bucket, path] = mdio::zarr::ExtractCloudPath("gs:/");
+  EXPECT_EQ(bucket, "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(path, "");
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// JSON Utility Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonString_ExistingKey) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"name", "test"}, {"version", "1.0"}};
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "name"), "test");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "version"), "1.0");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonString_MissingKey) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"name", "test"}};
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "missing"), "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "missing", "default"), "default");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonString_NonStringValue) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"number", 42}, {"array", {1, 2, 3}}};
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "number"), "");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetJsonString(json, "array", "fallback"), "fallback");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonObject_ExistingKey) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"metadata", {{"key", "value"}}}};
+  auto obj = mdio::zarr::GetJsonObject(json, "metadata");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(obj.is_object());
+  EXPECT_EQ(obj["key"], "value");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonObject_MissingKey) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"name", "test"}};
+  auto obj = mdio::zarr::GetJsonObject(json, "missing");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(obj.is_object());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(obj.empty());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, GetJsonObject_NonObjectValue) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"name", "test"}, {"array", {1, 2, 3}}};
+  auto obj = mdio::zarr::GetJsonObject(json, "name");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(obj.is_object());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(obj.empty());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractVariableName_WithSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::ExtractVariableName("myvar/.zarray"), "myvar");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::ExtractVariableName("data/zarr.json"), "data");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::ExtractVariableName("nested/path/file"), "nested");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ExtractVariableName_NoSlash) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::ExtractVariableName("myvar"), "myvar");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::ExtractVariableName(".zarray"), ".zarray");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseJsonFromReadResult_Valid) {
+  // Create a mock read result with valid JSON
+  tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult result;
+  result.state = tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult::kValue;
+  result.value = absl::Cord(R"({"key": "value", "number": 42})");
+
+  auto parsed = mdio::zarr::ParseJsonFromReadResult(result);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(parsed.ok()) << parsed.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(parsed.value()["key"], "value");
+  EXPECT_EQ(parsed.value()["number"], 42);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseJsonFromReadResult_InvalidJson) {
+  tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult result;
+  result.state = tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult::kValue;
+  result.value = absl::Cord("not valid json {{{");
+
+  auto parsed = mdio::zarr::ParseJsonFromReadResult(result);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(parsed.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(parsed.status().message(),
+              testing::HasSubstr("JSON parse error"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrDriver, ParseJsonFromReadResult_NoValue) {
+  tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult result;
+  result.state = tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult::kMissing;
+  // value is not set
+
+  auto parsed = mdio::zarr::ParseJsonFromReadResult(result);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(parsed.ok());
+  EXPECT_THAT(parsed.status().message(), testing::HasSubstr("no value"));
+}
+
+}  // namespace ZarrDriverTests
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Zarr V2 Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+namespace ZarrV2Tests {
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, DriverName) { EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v2::kDriverName, "zarr"); }
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ZarrFormat) { EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v2::kZarrFormat, 2); }
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ConsolidatedFormat) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v2::kConsolidatedFormat, 1);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_int8) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("int8");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<i1");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_int16) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("int16");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<i2");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_int32) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("int32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<i4");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_int64) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("int64");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<i8");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_uint8) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("uint8");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<u1");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_uint16) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("uint16");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<u2");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_uint32) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("uint32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<u4");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_uint64) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("uint64");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<u8");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_float16) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("float16");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<f2");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_float32) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("float32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<f4");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_float64) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("float64");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<f8");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_bool) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("bool");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "|b1");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_complex64) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("complex64");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<c8");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_complex128) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("complex128");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<c16");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, ToZarrDtype_invalid) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::ToZarrDtype("unknown_type");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, CreateZgroup) {
+  auto zgroup = mdio::zarr::v2::CreateZgroup();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(zgroup.contains("zarr_format"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(zgroup["zarr_format"], 2);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, CreateVariableSpec) {
+  auto spec = mdio::zarr::v2::CreateVariableSpec("test_var");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("driver"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("kvstore"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("metadata"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("attributes"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, PrepareVariableAttributes) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {
+      {"attributes",
+       {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+        {"variable_name", "test"},
+        {"long_name", "Test Variable"},
+        {"metadata", {{"chunkGrid", "should_be_removed"}, {"key", "value"}}}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v2::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("dimension_names"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("variable_name"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs["long_name"], "Test Variable");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("key"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs["key"], "value");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("metadata"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("chunkGrid"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, GetZarray_WithDefaults) {
+  // Test GetZarray with minimal metadata - should apply defaults
+  nlohmann::json input = {
+      {"metadata", {{"shape", {100, 200}}, {"dtype", "<f4"}}}};
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::GetZarray(input);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+
+  auto zarray = result.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["order"], "C");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(zarray["filters"].is_null());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(zarray["fill_value"].is_null());
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["zarr_format"], 2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["dimension_separator"], "/");
+  // chunks should default to shape when not provided
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["chunks"], zarray["shape"]);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, GetZarray_WithAllFields) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"metadata",
+                           {{"shape", {100, 200}},
+                            {"dtype", "<f4"},
+                            {"chunks", {50, 50}},
+                            {"order", "F"},
+                            {"fill_value", 0.0},
+                            {"zarr_format", 2},
+                            {"dimension_separator", "."},
+                            {"compressor", {{"id", "blosc"}}}}}};
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::GetZarray(input);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+
+  auto zarray = result.value();
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["order"], "F");
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["dimension_separator"], ".");
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["chunks"][0], 50);
+  EXPECT_EQ(zarray["chunks"][1], 50);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, GetZarray_NoMetadataKey) {
+  // Test GetZarray without metadata key - should create empty metadata
+  nlohmann::json input = nlohmann::json::object();
+  // Note: This will fail because shape and dtype are required
+  // but it tests the metadata initialization path
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v2::GetZarray(input);
+  // Should fail because shape/dtype are not provided
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, PrepareVariableAttributes_EmptyCoordinatesString) {
+  // Test with empty string coordinates - should be removed
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"attributes",
+                           {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+                            {"coordinates", ""},
+                            {"long_name", "Test Variable"}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v2::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("coordinates"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("long_name"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, PrepareVariableAttributes_EmptyCoordinatesArray) {
+  // Test with empty array coordinates - should be removed
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"attributes",
+                           {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+                            {"coordinates", nlohmann::json::array()},
+                            {"long_name", "Test Variable"}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v2::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("coordinates"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, PrepareVariableAttributes_ValidCoordinates) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"attributes",
+                           {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+                            {"coordinates", "cdp-x cdp-y"},
+                            {"long_name", "Test Variable"}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v2::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("coordinates"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs["coordinates"], "cdp-x cdp-y");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV2, PrepareVariableAttributes_EmptyLongName) {
+  // Test with empty long_name - should be removed
+  nlohmann::json input = {
+      {"attributes", {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}}, {"long_name", ""}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v2::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("long_name"));
+}
+
+}  // namespace ZarrV2Tests
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Zarr V3 Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+namespace ZarrV3Tests {
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, DriverName) { EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::kDriverName, "zarr3"); }
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ZarrFormat) { EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::kZarrFormat, 3); }
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, NodeTypes) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::kGroupNodeType, "group");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::kArrayNodeType, "array");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ToZarrDtype_int8) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v3::ToZarrDtype("int8");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "int8");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ToZarrDtype_float32) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v3::ToZarrDtype("float32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "float32");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ToZarrDtype_float64) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v3::ToZarrDtype("float64");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "float64");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ToZarrDtype_complex128) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v3::ToZarrDtype("complex128");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "complex128");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ToZarrDtype_invalid) {
+  auto result = mdio::zarr::v3::ToZarrDtype("unknown_type");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(result.ok());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, CreateGroupMetadata_Empty) {
+  auto metadata = mdio::zarr::v3::CreateGroupMetadata();
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["zarr_format"], 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["node_type"], "group");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(metadata.contains("attributes"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, CreateGroupMetadata_WithAttributes) {
+  nlohmann::json attrs = {{"name", "test"}, {"version", "1.0"}};
+  auto metadata = mdio::zarr::v3::CreateGroupMetadata(attrs);
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["zarr_format"], 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["node_type"], "group");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(metadata.contains("attributes"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["attributes"]["name"], "test");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, CreateArrayMetadata) {
+  std::vector<int64_t> shape = {100, 200};
+  std::vector<int64_t> chunks = {50, 50};
+  auto metadata = mdio::zarr::v3::CreateArrayMetadata(shape, chunks, "float32");
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["zarr_format"], 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["node_type"], "array");
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["shape"], shape);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(metadata.contains("chunk_grid"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["chunk_grid"]["name"], "regular");
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["chunk_grid"]["configuration"]["chunk_shape"], chunks);
+  EXPECT_EQ(metadata["data_type"], "float32");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(metadata.contains("codecs"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, CreateVariableSpec) {
+  auto spec = mdio::zarr::v3::CreateVariableSpec("test_var");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("driver"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr3");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("kvstore"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("metadata"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(spec.contains("attributes"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, PrepareVariableAttributes) {
+  nlohmann::json input = {
+      {"attributes",
+       {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y", "z"}},
+        {"variable_name", "test"},
+        {"long_name", ""},  // Empty should be removed
+        {"metadata",
+         {{"chunkGrid", "should_be_removed"}, {"custom", "value"}}}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v3::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("dimension_names"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("variable_name"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("long_name"));  // Empty removed
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("custom"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs["custom"], "value");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ConvertToMdioMetadata) {
+  nlohmann::json zarr_json = {
+      {"zarr_format", 3},
+      {"node_type", "array"},
+      {"attributes", {{"_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS", {"x", "y"}}, {"key", "value"}}}};
+
+  auto metadata = mdio::zarr::v3::ConvertToMdioMetadata(zarr_json);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(metadata.contains("dimension_names"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(metadata.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(metadata.contains("key"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, PrepareVariableAttributes_EmptyCoordinates) {
+  // Test empty string coordinates - should be removed (covers line 204)
+  nlohmann::json input = {{"attributes",
+                           {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+                            {"coordinates", ""},
+                            {"long_name", "Test Variable"}}}};
+
+  auto attrs = mdio::zarr::v3::PrepareVariableAttributes(input);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs.contains("coordinates"));
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("long_name"));
+
+  // Also test empty array coordinates
+  nlohmann::json input2 = {{"attributes",
+                            {{"dimension_names", {"x", "y"}},
+                             {"coordinates", nlohmann::json::array()}}}};
+
+  auto attrs2 = mdio::zarr::v3::PrepareVariableAttributes(input2);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(attrs2.contains("coordinates"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ReadVariableAttributes) {
+  // Create a temporary directory with a zarr.json file
+  auto tmpDir = std::filesystem::temp_directory_path() /
+                ("zarr_v3_read_attrs_" + std::to_string(std::rand()));
+  std::filesystem::create_directories(tmpDir);
+
+  // Write a test zarr.json file
+  nlohmann::json test_zarr_json = {
+      {"zarr_format", 3},
+      {"node_type", "array"},
+      {"attributes", {{"_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS", {"x", "y"}}, {"units", "meters"}}}};
+
+  std::ofstream out(tmpDir / "zarr.json");
+  out << test_zarr_json.dump(4);
+  out.close();
+
+  // Open KvStore - file driver needs trailing slash for directories
+  nlohmann::json kvstore_spec = {{"driver", "file"},
+                                 {"path", tmpDir.string() + "/"}};
+
+  auto kvs_result = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore_spec).result();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(kvs_result.ok()) << kvs_result.status();
+
+  auto attrs_future =
+      mdio::zarr::v3::ReadVariableAttributes(kvs_result.value());
+  auto attrs_result = attrs_future.result();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(attrs_result.ok()) << attrs_result.status();
+
+  auto attrs = attrs_result.value();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(attrs["units"], "meters");
+
+  // Cleanup
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(tmpDir);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ReadVariableAttributes_NoAttributesInFile) {
+  auto tmpDir = std::filesystem::temp_directory_path() /
+                ("zarr_v3_no_attrs_" + std::to_string(std::rand()));
+  std::filesystem::create_directories(tmpDir);
+
+  // Write zarr.json without attributes field
+  nlohmann::json test_zarr_json = {{"zarr_format", 3}, {"node_type", "array"}};
+
+  std::ofstream out(tmpDir / "zarr.json");
+  out << test_zarr_json.dump(4);
+  out.close();
+
+  // File driver needs trailing slash for directories
+  nlohmann::json kvstore_spec = {{"driver", "file"},
+                                 {"path", tmpDir.string() + "/"}};
+  auto kvs_result = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore_spec).result();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(kvs_result.ok()) << kvs_result.status();
+
+  auto attrs_future =
+      mdio::zarr::v3::ReadVariableAttributes(kvs_result.value());
+  auto attrs_result = attrs_future.result();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(attrs_result.ok()) << attrs_result.status();
+
+  // Should return empty object when no attributes field
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs_result.value().is_object());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(attrs_result.value().empty());
+
+  std::filesystem::remove_all(tmpDir);
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// V3 Utility Function Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, IsArrayMetadata_True) {
+  nlohmann::json array_json = {{"node_type", "array"}, {"zarr_format", 3}};
+  EXPECT_TRUE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsArrayMetadata(array_json));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, IsArrayMetadata_False_Group) {
+  nlohmann::json group_json = {{"node_type", "group"}, {"zarr_format", 3}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsArrayMetadata(group_json));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, IsArrayMetadata_False_NoNodeType) {
+  nlohmann::json json = {{"zarr_format", 3}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsArrayMetadata(json));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ExtractChildArrayCandidates_ValidEntries) {
+  std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry> entries;
+  entries.push_back({"var1/zarr.json", {}});
+  entries.push_back({"var2/zarr.json", {}});
+  entries.push_back({"var3/data/chunk", {}});  // Not a zarr.json
+  entries.push_back({"zarr.json", {}});        // Root, no slash
+
+  auto candidates = mdio::zarr::v3::ExtractChildArrayCandidates(entries);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(candidates.size(), 2);
+  EXPECT_THAT(candidates, testing::Contains("var1"));
+  EXPECT_THAT(candidates, testing::Contains("var2"));
+  EXPECT_THAT(candidates, testing::Not(testing::Contains("var3")));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ExtractChildArrayCandidates_NoDuplicates) {
+  std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry> entries;
+  entries.push_back({"var1/zarr.json", {}});
+  entries.push_back({"var1/zarr.json", {}});  // Duplicate
+  entries.push_back({"var1/data", {}});
+
+  auto candidates = mdio::zarr::v3::ExtractChildArrayCandidates(entries);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(candidates.size(), 1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(candidates[0], "var1");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, ExtractChildArrayCandidates_Empty) {
+  std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry> entries;
+
+  auto candidates = mdio::zarr::v3::ExtractChildArrayCandidates(entries);
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(candidates.empty());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, BuildVariableSpec_LocalFile) {
+  auto spec =
+      mdio::zarr::v3::BuildVariableSpec("file", "/path/to/dataset", "myvar");
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr3");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["kvstore"]["driver"], "file");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["kvstore"]["path"], "/path/to/dataset/myvar");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrV3, BuildVariableSpec_GCS) {
+  auto spec = mdio::zarr::v3::BuildVariableSpec("gcs", "bucket/path", "myvar");
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr3");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["kvstore"]["driver"], "gcs");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["kvstore"]["path"], "bucket/path/myvar");
+}
+
+}  // namespace ZarrV3Tests
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Unified Zarr Interface Tests
+// =============================================================================
+
+namespace ZarrUnifiedTests {
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetDriverNameForVersion_V2) {
+  auto name = mdio::zarr::GetDriverNameForVersion(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(name, "zarr");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetDriverNameForVersion_V3) {
+  auto name = mdio::zarr::GetDriverNameForVersion(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(name, "zarr3");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, ConvertDtype_V2) {
+  auto result =
+      mdio::zarr::ConvertDtype(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, "float32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "<f4");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, ConvertDtype_V3) {
+  auto result =
+      mdio::zarr::ConvertDtype(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, "float32");
+  ASSERT_TRUE(result.ok()) << result.status();
+  EXPECT_EQ(result.value(), "float32");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, CreateVariableSpec_V2) {
+  auto spec =
+      mdio::zarr::CreateVariableSpec(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, "var");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, CreateVariableSpec_V3) {
+  auto spec =
+      mdio::zarr::CreateVariableSpec(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, "var");
+  EXPECT_EQ(spec["driver"], "zarr3");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsV3Spec_True) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr3"}};
+  EXPECT_TRUE(mdio::zarr::IsV3Spec(spec));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsV3Spec_False) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr"}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::IsV3Spec(spec));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsV3Spec_NoDriver) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"path", "test"}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::IsV3Spec(spec));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetVersionFromSpec_V2) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr"}};
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(spec), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetVersionFromSpec_V3) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr3"}};
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::GetVersionFromSpec(spec), mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, UpdateSpecVersion_ToV3) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr"}, {"path", "test"}};
+  auto updated =
+      mdio::zarr::UpdateSpecVersion(spec, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(updated["driver"], "zarr3");
+  EXPECT_EQ(updated["path"], "test");  // Other fields preserved
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, UpdateSpecVersion_ToV2) {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", "zarr3"}, {"path", "test"}};
+  auto updated =
+      mdio::zarr::UpdateSpecVersion(spec, mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(updated["driver"], "zarr");
+  EXPECT_EQ(updated["path"], "test");
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Structured dtype detection + open_as_void preparation
+// =============================================================================
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetStructFieldNames_V2_Structured) {
+  auto metadata = nlohmann::json::parse(
+      R"({"dtype": [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]})");
+  auto names =
+      mdio::zarr::GetStructFieldNames(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, metadata);
+  EXPECT_THAT(names, testing::ElementsAre("cdp-x", "cdp-y"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetStructFieldNames_V2_NotStructured) {
+  nlohmann::json metadata = {{"dtype", "<f4"}};
+  auto names =
+      mdio::zarr::GetStructFieldNames(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, metadata);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(names.empty());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetStructFieldNames_V3_Structured) {
+  auto metadata = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "data_type": {
+        "name": "struct",
+        "configuration": {"fields": [{"name": "cdp-x"}, {"name": "cdp-y"}]}
+      }
+    })");
+  auto names =
+      mdio::zarr::GetStructFieldNames(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, metadata);
+  EXPECT_THAT(names, testing::ElementsAre("cdp-x", "cdp-y"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetStructFieldNames_V3_NotStructured) {
+  nlohmann::json metadata = {{"data_type", "float32"}};
+  auto names =
+      mdio::zarr::GetStructFieldNames(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, metadata);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(names.empty());
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsStructuredDType_V2) {
+  auto structured = nlohmann::json::parse(
+      R"({"dtype": [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]})");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      mdio::zarr::IsStructuredDType(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, structured));
+
+  nlohmann::json scalar = {{"dtype", "<f4"}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(
+      mdio::zarr::IsStructuredDType(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV2, scalar));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsStructuredDType_V3) {
+  auto structured = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "data_type": {
+        "name": "struct",
+        "configuration": {"fields": [{"name": "cdp-x"}]}
+      }
+    })");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(
+      mdio::zarr::IsStructuredDType(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, structured));
+
+  nlohmann::json scalar = {{"data_type", "float32"}};
+  EXPECT_FALSE(
+      mdio::zarr::IsStructuredDType(mdio::zarr::ZarrVersion::kV3, scalar));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_V2_Structured_SetsFlag) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr",
+      "metadata": {"dtype": [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]}
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(prepared.contains("open_as_void"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(prepared["open_as_void"], true);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_V3_Structured_SetsFlag) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr3",
+      "metadata": {
+        "data_type": {
+          "name": "struct",
+          "configuration": {"fields": [{"name": "cdp-x"}, {"name": "cdp-y"}]}
+        }
+      }
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(prepared.contains("open_as_void"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(prepared["open_as_void"], true);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_NotStructured_Unchanged) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr",
+      "metadata": {"dtype": "<f4"}
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(prepared.contains("open_as_void"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_WithField_Unchanged) {
+  // A caller-selected field means the struct is opened as a single field, so
+  // the void flag must not be added.
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr",
+      "field": "cdp-x",
+      "metadata": {"dtype": [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]}
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(prepared.contains("open_as_void"));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_AlreadyVoid_Unchanged) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr",
+      "open_as_void": true,
+      "metadata": {"dtype": [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]}
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  EXPECT_EQ(prepared["open_as_void"], true);
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, PrepareStructuredOpenSpec_NoMetadata_Unchanged) {
+  auto spec = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "driver": "zarr",
+      "kvstore": {"driver": "file", "path": "/tmp/x"}
+    })");
+  auto prepared = mdio::zarr::PrepareStructuredOpenSpec(spec);
+  EXPECT_FALSE(prepared.contains("open_as_void"));
+  EXPECT_EQ(prepared, spec);
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Metadata-only (string/bytes/datetime) dtype detection (V3)
+// =============================================================================
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, GetDataTypeName_StringAndObject) {
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::GetDataTypeName(nlohmann::json("float32")),
+            "float32");
+
+  auto fixed = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "name": "fixed_length_utf32",
+      "configuration": {"length_bytes": 4}
+    })");
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::GetDataTypeName(fixed), "fixed_length_utf32");
+
+  // Unrecognizable shapes resolve to an empty name.
+  EXPECT_EQ(mdio::zarr::v3::GetDataTypeName(nlohmann::json::array()), "");
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsMetadataOnlyDataType_StringLike) {
+  // The SEG-Y file header dtype written by Python mdio.
+  auto fixed = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "name": "fixed_length_utf32",
+      "configuration": {"length_bytes": 4}
+    })");
+  EXPECT_TRUE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(fixed));
+
+  for (const auto* name :
+       {"string", "variable_length_utf8", "raw_bytes", "null_terminated_bytes",
+        "variable_length_bytes", "numpy.datetime64", "numpy.timedelta64"}) {
+    EXPECT_TRUE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(nlohmann::json(name)))
+        << name;
+  }
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, IsMetadataOnlyDataType_NumericAndStructAreOpenable) {
+  for (const auto* name : {"int32", "float32", "float64", "complex64", "bool"}) {
+    EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(nlohmann::json(name)))
+        << name;
+  }
+
+  auto structured = nlohmann::json::parse(R"({
+      "name": "struct",
+      "configuration": {"fields": [{"name": "cdp-x", "data_type": "int32"}]}
+    })");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v3::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(structured));
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, V2_IsMetadataOnlyDataType_StringLike) {
+  // U: unicode (UTF-32), S: bytes, O: object, M: datetime64, m: timedelta64.
+  for (const auto* typestr :
+       {"<U40", ">U10", "|S8", "|O", "<M8[ns]", "<m8[ns]"}) {
+    EXPECT_TRUE(mdio::zarr::v2::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(nlohmann::json(typestr)))
+        << typestr;
+  }
+}
+
+TEST(ZarrUnified, V2_IsMetadataOnlyDataType_NumericAndStructAreOpenable) {
+  for (const auto* typestr :
+       {"<i4", "<i8", "<u2", "<f4", "<f8", "|b1", "<c8"}) {
+    EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v2::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(nlohmann::json(typestr)))
+        << typestr;
+  }
+
+  // Structured (record) dtype is an array of fields, not a string.
+  auto structured = nlohmann::json::parse(R"([["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]])");
+  EXPECT_FALSE(mdio::zarr::v2::IsMetadataOnlyDataType(structured));
+}
+
+}  // namespace ZarrUnifiedTests
+
+}  // namespace
diff --git a/mdio/zarr/zarr_v2.h b/mdio/zarr/zarr_v2.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2c58f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/zarr/zarr_v2.h
@@ -0,0 +1,630 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#ifndef MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V2_H_
+#define MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V2_H_
+
+#include <cctype>
+#include <memory>
+#include <string>
+#include <tuple>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "absl/strings/str_split.h"
+#include "mdio/impl.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h"
+#include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/dtype.h"
+#include "tensorstore/driver/zarr/metadata.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/operations.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+
+// clang-format off
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
+// clang-format on
+
+namespace mdio {
+namespace zarr {
+namespace v2 {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the Zarr V2 driver name.
+ * @return constexpr std::string_view The driver name.
+ */
+constexpr std::string_view kDriverName = "zarr";
+
+/**
+ * @brief The Zarr format version for V2.
+ */
+constexpr int kZarrFormat = 2;
+
+/**
+ * @brief The consolidated metadata format version.
+ */
+constexpr int kConsolidatedFormat = 1;
+
+/**
+ * @brief Retrieves the .zarray JSON metadata from the given metadata.
+ *
+ * This function derives the .zarray JSON metadata without actually reading it.
+ *
+ * @param metadata The input JSON metadata.
+ * @return An `mdio::Result` containing the .zarray JSON metadata on success, or
+ * an error on failure.
+ */
+inline Result<nlohmann::json> GetZarray(const ::nlohmann::json& metadata) {
+  auto json = metadata;
+  nlohmann::json zarray;
+  if (!json.contains("metadata")) {
+    json["metadata"] = nlohmann::json::object();
+    json["metadata"]["attributes"] = nlohmann::json::object();
+  }
+
+  // These fields can have defaults:
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("order")) {
+    zarray["order"] = "C";
+  } else {
+    zarray["order"] = json["metadata"]["order"];
+  }
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("filters")) {
+    zarray["filters"] = nullptr;
+  } else {
+    zarray["filters"] = json["metadata"]["filters"];
+  }
+
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("fill_value")) {
+    zarray["fill_value"] = nullptr;
+  } else {
+    zarray["fill_value"] = json["metadata"]["fill_value"];
+  }
+
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("zarr_format")) {
+    zarray["zarr_format"] = kZarrFormat;
+  } else {
+    zarray["zarr_format"] = json["metadata"]["zarr_format"];
+  }
+
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("chunks") &&
+      json["metadata"].contains("shape")) {
+    zarray["chunks"] = json["metadata"]["shape"];
+  } else {
+    zarray["chunks"] = json["metadata"]["chunks"];
+  }
+
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("compressor")) {
+    zarray["compressor"] = nullptr;
+  } else {
+    zarray["compressor"] = json["metadata"]["compressor"];
+  }
+
+  if (!json["metadata"].contains("dimension_separator")) {
+    zarray["dimension_separator"] = "/";
+  } else {
+    zarray["dimension_separator"] = json["metadata"]["dimension_separator"];
+  }
+
+  zarray["shape"] = json["metadata"]["shape"];
+  zarray["dtype"] = json["metadata"]["dtype"];
+
+  MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(
+      auto zarr_metadata,
+      tensorstore::internal_zarr::ZarrMetadata::FromJson(zarray));
+
+  return ::nlohmann::json(zarr_metadata);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the field names of a Zarr V2 structured dtype.
+ *
+ * Zarr V2 represents structured dtypes as a numpy-style list of fields
+ * (e.g. [["cdp-x", "<i4"], ["cdp-y", "<i4"]]). Parsing is delegated to
+ * TensorStore so all numpy dtype variants are handled consistently.
+ *
+ * @param dtype The Zarr V2 "dtype" metadata value.
+ * @return Field names in declaration order, or empty if not structured.
+ */
+inline std::vector<std::string> GetStructFieldNames(
+    const nlohmann::json& dtype) {
+  std::vector<std::string> names;
+  auto parsed = tensorstore::internal_zarr::ParseDType(dtype);
+  if (parsed.ok() && parsed.value().has_fields) {
+    for (const auto& field : parsed.value().fields) {
+      names.push_back(field.name);
+    }
+  }
+  return names;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reports whether a Zarr V2 dtype is a metadata-only dtype.
+ *
+ * Mirrors the Zarr V3 behavior: Python `mdio` stores some variables (e.g. the
+ * SEG-Y file header) using string/bytes/datetime dtypes whose content lives in
+ * the variable attributes rather than in chunk data. TensorStore's zarr driver
+ * cannot open these, so they are treated as metadata-only and skipped during
+ * discovery instead of failing the whole dataset open.
+ *
+ * Zarr V2 dtypes are numpy typestrings such as "<f4", "|b1", "<U40", "|S8",
+ * "|O" or "<M8[ns]". The numpy "kind" character identifies the metadata-only
+ * families: U (unicode), S (byte string), O (object/variable-length),
+ * M (datetime64) and m (timedelta64). Numeric kinds (b/i/u/f/c) and structured
+ * (record) dtypes are openable and never metadata-only.
+ *
+ * @param dtype The Zarr V2 "dtype" metadata value.
+ * @return True if the dtype cannot be opened as a tensorstore array.
+ */
+inline bool IsMetadataOnlyDataType(const nlohmann::json& dtype) {
+  // Structured/record dtypes are represented as arrays of fields and are
+  // openable (handled via open_as_void elsewhere).
+  if (!dtype.is_string()) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const std::string typestr = dtype.get<std::string>();
+  for (char c : typestr) {
+    if (std::isalpha(static_cast<unsigned char>(c))) {
+      // First alphabetic character is the numpy kind character.
+      switch (c) {
+        case 'U':  // unicode string (UTF-32)
+        case 'S':  // byte string
+        case 'O':  // python object / variable-length
+        case 'M':  // datetime64
+        case 'm':  // timedelta64
+          return true;
+        default:
+          return false;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates the .zgroup JSON for Zarr V2.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The .zgroup content.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateZgroup() {
+  nlohmann::json zgroup;
+  zgroup["zarr_format"] = kZarrFormat;
+  return zgroup;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Prepares variable attributes JSON for .zattrs file.
+ *
+ * @param json The variable JSON specification.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The prepared attributes.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json PrepareVariableAttributes(const nlohmann::json& json) {
+  nlohmann::json fixedJson = json["attributes"];
+  fixedJson["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = fixedJson["dimension_names"];
+  fixedJson.erase("dimension_names");
+
+  // We do not want to be serializing the variable_name
+  if (fixedJson.contains("variable_name")) {
+    fixedJson.erase("variable_name");
+  }
+  if (fixedJson.contains("long_name") &&
+      fixedJson["long_name"].get<std::string>() == "") {
+    fixedJson.erase("long_name");
+  }
+  if (fixedJson.contains("metadata")) {
+    if (fixedJson["metadata"].contains("chunkGrid")) {
+      fixedJson["metadata"].erase("chunkGrid");
+    }
+    for (auto& item : fixedJson["metadata"].items()) {
+      fixedJson[item.key()] = std::move(item.value());
+    }
+    fixedJson.erase("metadata");
+  }
+  // Case where an empty array of coordinates were provided
+  if (fixedJson.contains("coordinates")) {
+    auto coords = fixedJson["coordinates"];
+    if (coords.empty() ||
+        (coords.is_string() && coords.get<std::string>() == "")) {
+      fixedJson.erase("coordinates");
+    }
+  }
+  return fixedJson;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Writes the consolidated metadata (.zmetadata) for a dataset.
+ *
+ * @param dataset_metadata The metadata for the dataset.
+ * @param json_variables The JSON variables.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
+ * @return An `mdio::Future<void>` representing the asynchronous write.
+ */
+inline Future<void> WriteConsolidatedMetadata(
+    const ::nlohmann::json& dataset_metadata,
+    const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
+  auto zattrs = dataset_metadata;
+  ::nlohmann::json zgroup = CreateZgroup();
+
+  // The consolidated metadata for the dataset
+  ::nlohmann::json zmetadata;
+  zmetadata["zarr_consolidated_format"] = kConsolidatedFormat;
+  zmetadata["metadata"][".zattrs"] = zattrs;
+  zmetadata["metadata"][".zgroup"] = zgroup;
+
+  std::string driver =
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["driver"].get<std::string>();
+
+  for (const auto& json : json_variables) {
+    // Extract variable name from path (last component)
+    std::string path = json["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>();
+    std::vector<std::string> path_parts = absl::StrSplit(path, '/');
+    std::string var_name = path_parts.back();
+
+    std::string zarray_key = var_name + "/.zarray";
+    std::string zattrs_key = var_name + "/.zattrs";
+
+    if (json.contains("_mdio_header_only") &&
+        json["_mdio_header_only"].get<bool>()) {
+      zmetadata["metadata"][zarray_key] = json["_mdio_zarray"];
+      if (json.contains("attributes")) {
+        zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key] = json["attributes"];
+      } else if (json.contains("_mdio_zattrs")) {
+        zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key] = json["_mdio_zattrs"];
+      } else {
+        zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key] = nlohmann::json::object();
+      }
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    MDIO_ASSIGN_OR_RETURN(zmetadata["metadata"][zarray_key], GetZarray(json));
+    zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key] = PrepareVariableAttributes(json);
+  }
+
+  // Extract base path by removing the last component (variable name)
+  std::vector<std::string> file_parts = absl::StrSplit(
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(), '/');
+  size_t toRemove = file_parts.back().size();
+  std::string basePath =
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().substr(
+          0, json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().size() -
+                 toRemove - 1);
+
+  nlohmann::json kvstore = nlohmann::json::object();
+  kvstore["driver"] = driver;
+  kvstore["path"] = basePath;
+
+  if (driver == "gcs" || driver == "s3") {
+    kvstore["bucket"] =
+        json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["bucket"].get<std::string>();
+  }
+
+  auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore, context);
+
+  auto zattrs_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
+      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
+      [zattrs = std::move(zattrs)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvs) {
+        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvs, "/.zattrs",
+                                           absl::Cord(zattrs.dump(4)));
+      },
+      kvs_future);
+
+  auto zmetadata_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
+      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
+      [zmetadata = std::move(zmetadata)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvs) {
+        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvs, "/.zmetadata",
+                                           absl::Cord(zmetadata.dump(4)));
+      },
+      kvs_future);
+
+  auto zgroup_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
+      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
+      [zgroup = std::move(zgroup)](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvs) {
+        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvs, "/.zgroup",
+                                           absl::Cord(zgroup.dump(4)));
+      },
+      kvs_future);
+
+  return tensorstore::WaitAllFuture(zattrs_future, zmetadata_future,
+                                    zgroup_future);
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Async Metadata Discovery for V2
+// ============================================================================
+
+namespace internal {
+
+/**
+ * @brief State for V2 consolidated metadata reading operations.
+ *
+ * This struct holds all state needed across the async callback chain.
+ */
+struct V2MetadataState {
+  using ResultType = std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>>;
+  using PromiseType = tensorstore::Promise<ResultType>;
+
+  PromiseType promise;
+  tensorstore::KvStore kvs;
+  std::string dataset_path;
+  std::string normalized_path;
+  std::string driver;
+  std::string bucket;
+  std::string cloud_path;
+
+  explicit V2MetadataState(PromiseType p, const std::string& path)
+      : promise(std::move(p)),
+        dataset_path(path),
+        normalized_path(NormalizePathWithSlash(path)),
+        driver(InferDriverFromPath(path)) {
+    if (driver != "file") {
+      auto cloud_parts = ExtractCloudPath(path);
+      bucket = cloud_parts.first;
+      cloud_path = NormalizePathWithSlash(cloud_parts.second);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /// Completes with an error status.
+  void Fail(absl::Status status) { promise.SetResult(std::move(status)); }
+
+  /// Completes successfully.
+  void Complete(nlohmann::json metadata, std::vector<nlohmann::json> vars) {
+    promise.SetResult(std::make_tuple(std::move(metadata), std::move(vars)));
+  }
+
+  /// Builds a variable spec for the given variable name.
+  nlohmann::json BuildVariableSpec(const std::string& var_name) const {
+    nlohmann::json spec = {{"driver", std::string(kDriverName)},
+                           {"kvstore", {{"driver", driver}}}};
+    if (driver != "file") {
+      spec["kvstore"]["bucket"] = bucket;
+      spec["kvstore"]["path"] = cloud_path + var_name;
+    } else {
+      spec["kvstore"]["path"] = normalized_path + var_name;
+    }
+    return spec;
+  }
+};
+
+/// Step 2: Parse .zmetadata and build variable specs.
+inline void OnZmetadataRead(
+    std::shared_ptr<V2MetadataState> state,
+    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult> read_ready) {
+  if (!read_ready.result().ok()) {
+    state->Fail(read_ready.result().status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  auto parsed = ParseJsonFromReadResult(read_ready.value());
+  if (!parsed.ok()) {
+    if (!state->dataset_path.empty() && state->dataset_path.back() != '/') {
+      state->Fail(absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+          "Failed to parse .zmetadata. Try adding a trailing slash to the "
+          "path."));
+    } else {
+      state->Fail(parsed.status());
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+
+  const auto& zmetadata = parsed.value();
+
+  if (!zmetadata.contains("metadata")) {
+    state->Fail(
+        absl::InvalidArgumentError("zmetadata does not contain metadata."));
+    return;
+  }
+
+  if (!zmetadata["metadata"].contains(".zattrs")) {
+    state->Fail(absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+        "zmetadata does not contain dataset metadata."));
+    return;
+  }
+
+  auto dataset_metadata = zmetadata["metadata"][".zattrs"];
+  std::vector<nlohmann::json> json_vars;
+
+  for (const auto& element : zmetadata["metadata"].items()) {
+    const std::string& key = element.key();
+    // Skip if not a .zarray entry
+    size_t dot_pos = key.find_last_of('.');
+    if (dot_pos == std::string::npos || key.substr(dot_pos + 1) != "zarray") {
+      continue;
+    }
+    if (element.value().contains("dtype") &&
+        IsMetadataOnlyDataType(element.value()["dtype"])) {
+      std::string var_name = ExtractVariableName(key);
+      auto spec = state->BuildVariableSpec(var_name);
+      spec["_mdio_header_only"] = true;
+      spec["_mdio_zarray"] = element.value();
+      const std::string zattrs_key = var_name + "/.zattrs";
+      if (zmetadata["metadata"].contains(zattrs_key)) {
+        spec["_mdio_zattrs"] = zmetadata["metadata"][zattrs_key];
+      } else {
+        spec["_mdio_zattrs"] = nlohmann::json::object();
+      }
+      json_vars.push_back(std::move(spec));
+      continue;
+    }
+    std::string var_name = ExtractVariableName(key);
+    json_vars.push_back(state->BuildVariableSpec(var_name));
+  }
+
+  if (json_vars.empty()) {
+    state->Fail(absl::InvalidArgumentError("No variables found in zmetadata."));
+    return;
+  }
+
+  state->Complete(std::move(dataset_metadata), std::move(json_vars));
+}
+
+/// Step 1: Start reading .zmetadata.
+inline void OnV2KvStoreReady(
+    std::shared_ptr<V2MetadataState> state,
+    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> kvs_ready) {
+  if (!kvs_ready.result().ok()) {
+    state->Fail(kvs_ready.result().status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  state->kvs = kvs_ready.value();
+  auto read_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(state->kvs, ".zmetadata");
+  read_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [state](
+          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult> ready) {
+        OnZmetadataRead(state, std::move(ready));
+      });
+}
+
+}  // namespace internal
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reads and parses the consolidated metadata from a dataset path.
+ *
+ * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset.
+ * @param kvs_future A future to the KvStore.
+ * @return A future containing dataset metadata and variable JSON specs.
+ */
+inline Future<std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>
+ReadConsolidatedMetadata(const std::string& dataset_path,
+                         tensorstore::Future<tensorstore::KvStore> kvs_future) {
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+      std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>::Make();
+
+  auto state = std::make_shared<internal::V2MetadataState>(
+      std::move(pair.promise), dataset_path);
+
+  kvs_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [state](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> ready) {
+        internal::OnV2KvStoreReady(state, std::move(ready));
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a Variable spec for Zarr V2.
+ * @param variable_name The name of the variable.
+ * @param path The path prefix.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The variable spec stub.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateVariableSpec(const std::string& variable_name,
+                                         const std::string& path = "") {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {
+      {"driver", std::string(kDriverName)},
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", "file"}, {"path", variable_name}}},
+      {"metadata",
+       {{"dtype", "DATA_TYPE"},
+        {"dimension_separator", "/"},
+        {"shape", "SHAPE"},
+        {"chunks", "CHUNKS"}}},
+      {"attributes", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  return spec;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Writes variable attributes to .zattrs file.
+ *
+ * @param store The TensorStore to write to.
+ * @param json_var The variable attributes JSON.
+ * @param isCloudStore Whether the store is a cloud store.
+ * @return Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> The write result.
+ */
+template <typename T, DimensionIndex R, ReadWriteMode M>
+Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> WriteVariableAttributes(
+    const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store,
+    const ::nlohmann::json& json_var, bool isCloudStore) {
+  auto output_json = json_var;
+  output_json["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = output_json["dimension_names"];
+  output_json.erase("dimension_names");
+  output_json.erase("variable_name");
+
+  if (output_json.contains("metadata")) {
+    output_json["metadata"].erase("chunkGrid");
+    for (auto& item : output_json["metadata"].items()) {
+      output_json[item.key()] = std::move(item.value());
+    }
+    output_json.erase("metadata");
+  }
+  if (output_json.contains("long_name")) {
+    if (output_json["long_name"] == "") {
+      output_json.erase("long_name");
+    }
+  }
+  // Case where empty array of coordinates is provided
+  if (output_json.contains("coordinates")) {
+    auto coords = output_json["coordinates"];
+    if (coords.empty() ||
+        (coords.is_string() && coords.get<std::string>() == "")) {
+      output_json.erase("coordinates");
+    }
+  }
+
+  std::string outpath = ".zattrs";
+  return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(store.kvstore(), outpath,
+                                     absl::Cord(output_json.dump(4)));
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reads variable attributes from .zattrs file.
+ *
+ * @param kvstore The KvStore to read from.
+ * @return Future<nlohmann::json> The attributes JSON.
+ */
+inline Future<nlohmann::json> ReadVariableAttributes(
+    const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<nlohmann::json>::Make();
+
+  auto read_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "/.zattrs");
+  read_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [promise = std::move(pair.promise)](
+          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+              ready_result) {
+        if (!ready_result.result().ok()) {
+          promise.SetResult(ready_result.result().status());
+          return;
+        }
+        auto attributes = nlohmann::json::parse(
+            std::string(ready_result.value().value), nullptr, false);
+        promise.SetResult(attributes);
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Converts a dtype string to Zarr V2 numpy-style dtype.
+ * @param dtype The input dtype string.
+ * @return Result<std::string> The Zarr V2 dtype string.
+ */
+inline Result<std::string> ToZarrDtype(const std::string& dtype) {
+  if (dtype == "int8") return "<i1";
+  if (dtype == "int16") return "<i2";
+  if (dtype == "int32") return "<i4";
+  if (dtype == "int64") return "<i8";
+  if (dtype == "uint8") return "<u1";
+  if (dtype == "uint16") return "<u2";
+  if (dtype == "uint32") return "<u4";
+  if (dtype == "uint64") return "<u8";
+  if (dtype == "float16") return "<f2";
+  if (dtype == "float32") return "<f4";
+  if (dtype == "float64") return "<f8";
+  if (dtype == "bool") return "|b1";
+  if (dtype == "complex64") return "<c8";
+  if (dtype == "complex128") return "<c16";
+  return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Unknown dtype: " + dtype);
+}
+
+}  // namespace v2
+}  // namespace zarr
+}  // namespace mdio
+
+#endif  // MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V2_H_
diff --git a/mdio/zarr/zarr_v3.h b/mdio/zarr/zarr_v3.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d8947a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/mdio/zarr/zarr_v3.h
@@ -0,0 +1,785 @@
+// Copyright 2026 TGS
+
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#ifndef MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V3_H_
+#define MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V3_H_
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <memory>
+#include <string>
+#include <tuple>
+#include <unordered_set>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "absl/strings/str_split.h"
+#include "mdio/impl.h"
+#include "mdio/zarr/zarr_driver.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/kvstore.h"
+#include "tensorstore/kvstore/operations.h"
+#include "tensorstore/util/future.h"
+
+// clang-format off
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>  // NOLINT
+// clang-format on
+
+namespace mdio {
+namespace zarr {
+namespace v3 {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Gets the Zarr V3 driver name.
+ * @return constexpr std::string_view The driver name.
+ */
+constexpr std::string_view kDriverName = "zarr3";
+
+/**
+ * @brief The Zarr format version for V3.
+ */
+constexpr int kZarrFormat = 3;
+
+/**
+ * @brief The node type for a group in Zarr V3.
+ */
+constexpr std::string_view kGroupNodeType = "group";
+
+/**
+ * @brief The node type for an array in Zarr V3.
+ */
+constexpr std::string_view kArrayNodeType = "array";
+
+// ============================================================================
+// V3-Specific JSON Utilities
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * @brief Checks if a JSON object represents a Zarr V3 array.
+ * @param json The zarr.json content.
+ * @return True if node_type is "array".
+ */
+inline bool IsArrayMetadata(const nlohmann::json& json) {
+  return GetJsonString(json, "node_type") == std::string(kArrayNodeType);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief The Zarr V3 data_type name used for structured (record) dtypes.
+ */
+constexpr std::string_view kStructDataTypeName = "struct";
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the field names of a Zarr V3 structured data_type.
+ *
+ * Zarr V3 represents structured dtypes as an object:
+ * @code
+ * {
+ *   "name": "struct",
+ *   "configuration": {
+ *     "fields": [
+ *       {"name": "cdp-x", "data_type": "int32"},
+ *       {"name": "cdp-y", "data_type": "int32"}
+ *     ]
+ *   }
+ * }
+ * @endcode
+ *
+ * For backwards compatibility this also accepts the legacy array-of-pairs
+ * layout (e.g. [["cdp-x", "int32"], ["cdp-y", "int32"]]).
+ *
+ * @param data_type The Zarr V3 "data_type" metadata value.
+ * @return Field names in declaration order, or empty if not structured.
+ */
+inline std::vector<std::string> GetStructFieldNames(
+    const nlohmann::json& data_type) {
+  std::vector<std::string> names;
+
+  // Current V3 layout: object with name == "struct".
+  if (data_type.is_object() &&
+      GetJsonString(data_type, "name") == std::string(kStructDataTypeName) &&
+      data_type.contains("configuration") &&
+      data_type["configuration"].contains("fields") &&
+      data_type["configuration"]["fields"].is_array()) {
+    for (const auto& field : data_type["configuration"]["fields"]) {
+      if (field.is_object() && field.contains("name")) {
+        names.push_back(field["name"].get<std::string>());
+      }
+    }
+    return names;
+  }
+
+  // Legacy layout: array of [name, type] pairs.
+  if (data_type.is_array() && !data_type.empty() && data_type[0].is_array()) {
+    for (const auto& field : data_type) {
+      if (field.is_array() && !field.empty()) {
+        names.push_back(field[0].get<std::string>());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return names;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts the name of a Zarr V3 data_type value.
+ *
+ * A V3 data_type is either a bare string (e.g. "int32") or an object carrying a
+ * "name" field (e.g. {"name": "fixed_length_utf32", "configuration": {...}}).
+ *
+ * @param data_type The Zarr V3 "data_type" metadata value.
+ * @return The data_type name, or an empty string if it cannot be determined.
+ */
+inline std::string GetDataTypeName(const nlohmann::json& data_type) {
+  if (data_type.is_string()) {
+    return data_type.get<std::string>();
+  }
+  if (data_type.is_object() && data_type.contains("name") &&
+      data_type["name"].is_string()) {
+    return data_type["name"].get<std::string>();
+  }
+  return "";
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reports whether a Zarr V3 data_type is a metadata-only dtype.
+ *
+ * Python `mdio` stores some variables using zarr v3 string/bytes/datetime
+ * extension dtypes. The canonical example is the SEG-Y file header
+ * (`segy_file_header`): a scalar `fixed_length_utf32` array whose real content
+ * (`textHeader`, `binaryHeader`) lives entirely in the array `attributes`.
+ * TensorStore's zarr3 driver only supports numeric dtypes (and the `struct`
+ * record dtype), so from C++'s perspective these arrays carry no openable data
+ * and are treated as metadata-only.
+ *
+ * @param data_type The Zarr V3 "data_type" metadata value.
+ * @return True if the dtype cannot be opened as a tensorstore array.
+ */
+inline bool IsMetadataOnlyDataType(const nlohmann::json& data_type) {
+  static const std::unordered_set<std::string> kMetadataOnlyNames = {
+      "fixed_length_utf32", "fixed_length_ascii", "string",
+      "variable_length_utf8", "raw_bytes", "null_terminated_bytes",
+      "variable_length_bytes", "numpy.datetime64", "numpy.timedelta64"};
+  return kMetadataOnlyNames.count(GetDataTypeName(data_type)) > 0;
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Variable Discovery Utilities
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * @brief Extracts child array names from kvstore list entries.
+ *
+ * Looks for entries matching pattern "NAME/zarr.json" and returns unique NAMEs.
+ *
+ * @param entries The list entries from kvstore.
+ * @return Vector of unique child directory names.
+ */
+inline std::vector<std::string> ExtractChildArrayCandidates(
+    const std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry>& entries) {
+  std::vector<std::string> candidates;
+  for (const auto& entry : entries) {
+    const std::string& key = entry.key;
+    size_t slash_pos = key.find('/');
+    if (slash_pos != std::string::npos &&
+        key.substr(slash_pos + 1) == "zarr.json") {
+      std::string name = key.substr(0, slash_pos);
+      if (std::find(candidates.begin(), candidates.end(), name) ==
+          candidates.end()) {
+        candidates.push_back(name);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return candidates;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Builds a variable spec for a Zarr V3 array.
+ * @param driver The kvstore driver name.
+ * @param base_path The base dataset path.
+ * @param var_name The variable/array name.
+ * @return The JSON spec for opening this variable.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json BuildVariableSpec(const std::string& driver,
+                                        const std::string& base_path,
+                                        const std::string& var_name) {
+  return {
+      {"driver", std::string(kDriverName)},
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", driver}, {"path", base_path + "/" + var_name}}}};
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Dtype Conversion
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * @brief Converts a dtype string to Zarr V3 format.
+ *
+ * Zarr V3 uses a different dtype specification than V2.
+ *
+ * @param dtype The input dtype string.
+ * @return Result<nlohmann::json> The Zarr V3 dtype specification.
+ */
+inline Result<nlohmann::json> ToZarrDtype(const std::string& dtype) {
+  // Zarr V3 uses different dtype specification
+  if (dtype == "int8") return "int8";
+  if (dtype == "int16") return "int16";
+  if (dtype == "int32") return "int32";
+  if (dtype == "int64") return "int64";
+  if (dtype == "uint8") return "uint8";
+  if (dtype == "uint16") return "uint16";
+  if (dtype == "uint32") return "uint32";
+  if (dtype == "uint64") return "uint64";
+  if (dtype == "float16") return "float16";
+  if (dtype == "float32") return "float32";
+  if (dtype == "float64") return "float64";
+  if (dtype == "bool") return "bool";
+  if (dtype == "complex64") return "complex64";
+  if (dtype == "complex128") return "complex128";
+  return absl::InvalidArgumentError("Unknown dtype: " + dtype);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates the root zarr.json for a Zarr V3 group.
+ *
+ * @param attributes Optional attributes to include.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The zarr.json content for the group.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateGroupMetadata(
+    const nlohmann::json& attributes = nlohmann::json::object()) {
+  nlohmann::json zarr_json;
+  zarr_json["zarr_format"] = kZarrFormat;
+  zarr_json["node_type"] = kGroupNodeType;
+  if (!attributes.empty()) {
+    zarr_json["attributes"] = attributes;
+  }
+  return zarr_json;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates the zarr.json for a Zarr V3 array.
+ *
+ * @param shape The array shape.
+ * @param chunks The chunk shape.
+ * @param dtype The data type.
+ * @param attributes Optional attributes.
+ * @param fill_value Optional fill value.
+ * @param codecs Optional codec configuration.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The zarr.json content for the array.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateArrayMetadata(
+    const std::vector<int64_t>& shape, const std::vector<int64_t>& chunks,
+    const std::string& dtype,
+    const nlohmann::json& attributes = nlohmann::json::object(),
+    const nlohmann::json& fill_value = nullptr,
+    const nlohmann::json& codecs = nlohmann::json::array()) {
+  nlohmann::json zarr_json;
+  zarr_json["zarr_format"] = kZarrFormat;
+  zarr_json["node_type"] = kArrayNodeType;
+  zarr_json["shape"] = shape;
+
+  // Chunk configuration for V3
+  zarr_json["chunk_grid"] = {{"name", "regular"},
+                             {"configuration", {{"chunk_shape", chunks}}}};
+
+  // Chunk key encoding (default to slash separator)
+  zarr_json["chunk_key_encoding"] = {{"name", "default"},
+                                     {"configuration", {{"separator", "/"}}}};
+
+  auto dtype_result = ToZarrDtype(dtype);
+  if (dtype_result.ok()) {
+    zarr_json["data_type"] = dtype_result.value();
+  } else {
+    zarr_json["data_type"] = dtype;
+  }
+
+  zarr_json["fill_value"] = fill_value;
+
+  // Default codecs if not specified
+  if (codecs.empty()) {
+    zarr_json["codecs"] = nlohmann::json::array({{{"name", "bytes"}}});
+  } else {
+    zarr_json["codecs"] = codecs;
+  }
+
+  if (!attributes.empty()) {
+    zarr_json["attributes"] = attributes;
+  }
+
+  return zarr_json;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Prepares MDIO attributes for Zarr V3 format.
+ *
+ * In Zarr V3, attributes are embedded directly in zarr.json.
+ * For xarray compatibility, dimension_names is converted to _ARRAY_DIMENSIONS.
+ *
+ * @param json The variable JSON specification.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The prepared attributes for Zarr V3.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json PrepareVariableAttributes(const nlohmann::json& json) {
+  nlohmann::json attrs = nlohmann::json::object();
+
+  if (json.contains("attributes")) {
+    attrs = json["attributes"];
+  }
+
+  // Convert dimension_names to _ARRAY_DIMENSIONS for xarray compatibility
+  if (attrs.contains("dimension_names")) {
+    attrs["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"] = attrs["dimension_names"];
+    attrs.erase("dimension_names");
+  }
+
+  // Remove variable_name as it's self-describing from path
+  if (attrs.contains("variable_name")) {
+    attrs.erase("variable_name");
+  }
+
+  // Handle empty long_name
+  if (attrs.contains("long_name") &&
+      attrs["long_name"].get<std::string>() == "") {
+    attrs.erase("long_name");
+  }
+
+  // Flatten metadata
+  if (attrs.contains("metadata")) {
+    if (attrs["metadata"].contains("chunkGrid")) {
+      attrs["metadata"].erase("chunkGrid");
+    }
+    for (auto& item : attrs["metadata"].items()) {
+      attrs[item.key()] = std::move(item.value());
+    }
+    attrs.erase("metadata");
+  }
+
+  // Handle empty coordinates
+  if (attrs.contains("coordinates")) {
+    auto coords = attrs["coordinates"];
+    if (coords.empty() ||
+        (coords.is_string() && coords.get<std::string>() == "")) {
+      attrs.erase("coordinates");
+    }
+  }
+
+  return attrs;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Writes metadata for a Zarr V3 dataset (NO consolidated metadata).
+ *
+ * For Zarr V3, we write individual zarr.json files for each array and the
+ * group. Consolidated metadata is NOT supported for Zarr V3.
+ *
+ * @param dataset_metadata The metadata for the dataset.
+ * @param json_variables The JSON variables.
+ * @param context Optional TensorStore context for credentials/configuration.
+ * @return An `mdio::Future<void>` representing the asynchronous write.
+ */
+inline Future<void> WriteMetadata(
+    const ::nlohmann::json& dataset_metadata,
+    const std::vector<::nlohmann::json>& json_variables,
+    tensorstore::Context context = tensorstore::Context::Default()) {
+  // Determine the base path and driver
+  std::string driver =
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["driver"].get<std::string>();
+
+  std::vector<std::string> file_parts = absl::StrSplit(
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>(), '/');
+  size_t toRemove = file_parts.back().size();
+  std::string basePath =
+      json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().substr(
+          0, json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["path"].get<std::string>().size() -
+                 toRemove - 1);
+  // Ensure basePath has trailing slash for directory operations
+  if (!basePath.empty() && basePath.back() != '/') {
+    basePath.push_back('/');
+  }
+
+  nlohmann::json kvstore = nlohmann::json::object();
+  kvstore["driver"] = driver;
+  kvstore["path"] = basePath;
+
+  if (driver == "gcs" || driver == "s3") {
+    kvstore["bucket"] =
+        json_variables[0]["kvstore"]["bucket"].get<std::string>();
+  }
+
+  auto kvs_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Open(kvstore, context);
+
+  // Create root metadata (variables are discovered via directory listing,
+  // not stored in zarr.json)
+  auto root_metadata = CreateGroupMetadata(dataset_metadata);
+
+  auto root_future = tensorstore::MapFutureValue(
+      tensorstore::InlineExecutor{},
+      [root_metadata](const tensorstore::KvStore& kvs) {
+        return tensorstore::kvstore::Write(kvs, "zarr.json",
+                                           absl::Cord(root_metadata.dump(4)));
+      },
+      kvs_future);
+
+  // Collect all write futures
+  std::vector<tensorstore::AnyFuture> write_futures;
+  write_futures.push_back(root_future);
+
+  // Note: Individual array zarr.json files are written by TensorStore
+  // when the variable is created, so we don't need to write them here.
+  // We only write the root group metadata.
+
+  return tensorstore::WaitAllFuture(write_futures);
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Async Metadata Discovery
+// ============================================================================
+
+namespace internal {
+
+/**
+ * @brief State for V3 async metadata discovery operations.
+ *
+ * This struct holds all state needed across the async callback chain,
+ * avoiding deeply nested lambdas and making the flow clearer.
+ */
+struct V3MetadataState {
+  using ResultType = std::tuple<nlohmann::json, std::vector<nlohmann::json>>;
+  using PromiseType = tensorstore::Promise<ResultType>;
+  using ReadFuture = tensorstore::Future<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>;
+
+  PromiseType promise;
+  tensorstore::KvStore kvs;
+  nlohmann::json dataset_metadata;
+  std::string dataset_path;
+  std::string driver;
+  std::string normalized_path;
+  std::vector<std::string> candidates;
+  std::shared_ptr<std::vector<ReadFuture>> read_futures;
+
+  explicit V3MetadataState(PromiseType p, const std::string& path)
+      : promise(std::move(p)),
+        dataset_path(path),
+        driver(InferDriverFromPath(path)),
+        normalized_path(NormalizePath(path)) {}
+
+  /// Completes with an error status.
+  void Fail(absl::Status status) { promise.SetResult(std::move(status)); }
+
+  /// Completes successfully with the discovered metadata and variables.
+  void Complete(std::vector<nlohmann::json> json_vars) {
+    promise.SetResult(std::make_tuple(dataset_metadata, std::move(json_vars)));
+  }
+
+  /// Builds a variable spec for the given variable name.
+  nlohmann::json MakeVariableSpec(const std::string& var_name) const {
+    return BuildVariableSpec(driver, normalized_path, var_name);
+  }
+
+  /// Filters read results to build variable specs for arrays only.
+  std::vector<nlohmann::json> BuildVariableSpecs() const {
+    std::vector<nlohmann::json> json_vars;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates.size(); ++i) {
+      const auto& result = (*read_futures)[i].result();
+      if (!result.ok() || !result->has_value()) continue;
+
+      auto parsed = ParseJsonFromReadResult(*result);
+      if (parsed.ok() && IsArrayMetadata(parsed.value())) {
+        if (parsed.value().contains("data_type") &&
+            IsMetadataOnlyDataType(parsed.value()["data_type"])) {
+          auto spec = MakeVariableSpec(candidates[i]);
+          spec["_mdio_header_only"] = true;
+          spec["_mdio_array_metadata"] = parsed.value();
+          json_vars.push_back(std::move(spec));
+          continue;
+        }
+        json_vars.push_back(MakeVariableSpec(candidates[i]));
+      }
+    }
+    return json_vars;
+  }
+};
+
+/// Step 4: Process read results and complete.
+inline void OnV3ChildReadsComplete(std::shared_ptr<V3MetadataState> state,
+                                   tensorstore::ReadyFuture<void>) {
+  auto json_vars = state->BuildVariableSpecs();
+  if (json_vars.empty()) {
+    state->Fail(absl::InvalidArgumentError("No Zarr V3 arrays found."));
+    return;
+  }
+  state->Complete(std::move(json_vars));
+}
+
+/// Step 3: Read all child zarr.json files and filter by node_type.
+inline void OnV3ListComplete(
+    std::shared_ptr<V3MetadataState> state,
+    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry>>
+        list_ready) {
+  if (!list_ready.result().ok()) {
+    state->Fail(list_ready.result().status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  state->candidates = ExtractChildArrayCandidates(list_ready.value());
+  if (state->candidates.empty()) {
+    state->Fail(absl::InvalidArgumentError("No Zarr V3 arrays found."));
+    return;
+  }
+
+  // Read all child zarr.json files
+  state->read_futures =
+      std::make_shared<std::vector<V3MetadataState::ReadFuture>>();
+  std::vector<tensorstore::AnyFuture> any_futures;
+
+  for (const auto& name : state->candidates) {
+    auto f = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(state->kvs, name + "/zarr.json");
+    state->read_futures->push_back(f);
+    any_futures.push_back(std::move(f));
+  }
+
+  auto all_reads = tensorstore::WaitAllFuture(any_futures);
+  all_reads.ExecuteWhenReady([state](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<void> ready) {
+    OnV3ChildReadsComplete(state, std::move(ready));
+  });
+}
+
+/// Step 2: Parse root metadata and list kvstore contents.
+inline void OnV3RootReadComplete(
+    std::shared_ptr<V3MetadataState> state,
+    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult> root_ready) {
+  if (!root_ready.result().ok()) {
+    state->Fail(root_ready.result().status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  auto root_json = ParseJsonFromReadResult(root_ready.value());
+  if (!root_json.ok()) {
+    state->Fail(root_json.status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  state->dataset_metadata = GetJsonObject(root_json.value(), "attributes");
+
+  auto list_future = tensorstore::kvstore::ListFuture(state->kvs);
+  list_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [state](
+          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<std::vector<tensorstore::kvstore::ListEntry>>
+              ready) { OnV3ListComplete(state, std::move(ready)); });
+}
+
+/// Step 1: Start reading root zarr.json.
+inline void OnV3KvStoreReady(
+    std::shared_ptr<V3MetadataState> state,
+    tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> kvs_ready) {
+  if (!kvs_ready.result().ok()) {
+    state->Fail(kvs_ready.result().status());
+    return;
+  }
+
+  state->kvs = kvs_ready.value();
+  auto root_read = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(state->kvs, "zarr.json");
+  root_read.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [state](
+          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult> ready) {
+        OnV3RootReadComplete(state, std::move(ready));
+      });
+}
+
+}  // namespace internal
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reads dataset metadata from Zarr V3 format (non-consolidated).
+ *
+ * For Zarr V3, we read the root zarr.json and then discover arrays
+ * by listing the kvstore contents and checking each zarr.json for
+ * node_type="array" (skipping groups).
+ *
+ * @param dataset_path The path to the dataset.
+ * @param kvs_future A future to the KvStore.
+ * @return A future containing dataset metadata and variable JSON specs.
+ */
+inline Future<std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>
+ReadMetadata(const std::string& dataset_path,
+             tensorstore::Future<tensorstore::KvStore> kvs_future) {
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+      std::tuple<::nlohmann::json, std::vector<::nlohmann::json>>>::Make();
+
+  auto state = std::make_shared<internal::V3MetadataState>(
+      std::move(pair.promise), dataset_path);
+
+  kvs_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [state](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::KvStore> ready) {
+        internal::OnV3KvStoreReady(state, std::move(ready));
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Creates a Variable spec for Zarr V3.
+ * @param variable_name The name of the variable.
+ * @param path The path prefix.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The variable spec stub.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json CreateVariableSpec(const std::string& variable_name,
+                                         const std::string& path = "") {
+  nlohmann::json spec = {
+      {"driver", std::string(kDriverName)},
+      {"kvstore", {{"driver", "file"}, {"path", variable_name}}},
+      {"metadata",
+       {{"data_type", "DATA_TYPE"},
+        {"shape", nlohmann::json::array()},
+        {"chunk_grid",
+         {{"name", "regular"},
+          {"configuration", {{"chunk_shape", nlohmann::json::array()}}}}}}},
+      {"attributes", nlohmann::json::object()}};
+  return spec;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Writes variable attributes to zarr.json (embedded in array metadata).
+ *
+ * For Zarr V3, attributes are part of the zarr.json file, not a separate
+ * .zattrs file.
+ *
+ * @param store The TensorStore to write to.
+ * @param json_var The variable attributes JSON.
+ * @param isCloudStore Whether the store is a cloud store.
+ * @return Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> The write result.
+ */
+template <typename T, DimensionIndex R, ReadWriteMode M>
+Future<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration> WriteVariableAttributes(
+    const tensorstore::TensorStore<T, R, M>& store,
+    const ::nlohmann::json& json_var, bool isCloudStore) {
+  // For Zarr V3, we need to read the existing zarr.json and update attributes
+  auto read_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(store.kvstore(), "zarr.json");
+
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<
+      tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>::Make();
+
+  read_future.ExecuteWhenReady([promise = std::move(pair.promise), store,
+                                json_var](tensorstore::ReadyFuture<
+                                          tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+                                              ready_result) {
+    nlohmann::json zarr_json;
+    if (ready_result.result().ok() && ready_result.value().has_value()) {
+      try {
+        zarr_json =
+            nlohmann::json::parse(std::string(ready_result.value().value));
+      } catch (...) {
+        zarr_json = nlohmann::json::object();
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Extract dimension_names before preparing attributes (goes at root level)
+    nlohmann::json dimension_names;
+    if (json_var.contains("dimension_names")) {
+      dimension_names = json_var["dimension_names"];
+    }
+
+    // Prepare and update attributes
+    auto attrs =
+        PrepareVariableAttributes(nlohmann::json{{"attributes", json_var}});
+    zarr_json["attributes"] = attrs;
+
+    // Add dimension_names at root level (Zarr V3 spec)
+    if (!dimension_names.is_null()) {
+      zarr_json["dimension_names"] = dimension_names;
+    }
+
+    // Write back
+    auto write_result = tensorstore::kvstore::Write(
+        store.kvstore(), "zarr.json", absl::Cord(zarr_json.dump(4)));
+    write_result.ExecuteWhenReady(
+        [promise = std::move(promise)](
+            tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::TimestampedStorageGeneration>
+                write_ready) { promise.SetResult(write_ready.result()); });
+  });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Reads variable attributes from zarr.json.
+ *
+ * @param kvstore The KvStore to read from.
+ * @return Future<nlohmann::json> The attributes JSON.
+ */
+inline Future<nlohmann::json> ReadVariableAttributes(
+    const tensorstore::KvStore& kvstore) {
+  auto pair = tensorstore::PromiseFuturePair<nlohmann::json>::Make();
+
+  auto read_future = tensorstore::kvstore::Read(kvstore, "zarr.json");
+  read_future.ExecuteWhenReady(
+      [promise = std::move(pair.promise)](
+          tensorstore::ReadyFuture<tensorstore::kvstore::ReadResult>
+              ready_result) {
+        if (!ready_result.result().ok()) {
+          promise.SetResult(ready_result.result().status());
+          return;
+        }
+        try {
+          auto zarr_json =
+              nlohmann::json::parse(std::string(ready_result.value().value));
+          nlohmann::json attrs;
+          if (zarr_json.contains("attributes")) {
+            attrs = zarr_json["attributes"];
+          } else {
+            attrs = nlohmann::json::object();
+          }
+          // Read dimension_names from root level and add to attrs for MDIO
+          if (zarr_json.contains("dimension_names")) {
+            attrs["dimension_names"] = zarr_json["dimension_names"];
+          }
+          promise.SetResult(attrs);
+        } catch (const nlohmann::json::parse_error& e) {
+          promise.SetResult(absl::InvalidArgumentError(
+              std::string("JSON parse error: ") + e.what()));
+        }
+      });
+
+  return pair.future;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief Helper to convert Zarr V3 metadata to MDIO-compatible format.
+ *
+ * Converts _ARRAY_DIMENSIONS back to dimension_names for internal MDIO use.
+ *
+ * @param zarr_json The Zarr V3 zarr.json content.
+ * @return nlohmann::json The MDIO-compatible metadata.
+ */
+inline nlohmann::json ConvertToMdioMetadata(const nlohmann::json& zarr_json) {
+  nlohmann::json mdio_metadata;
+
+  if (zarr_json.contains("attributes")) {
+    mdio_metadata = zarr_json["attributes"];
+  }
+
+  // Convert _ARRAY_DIMENSIONS back to dimension_names for MDIO
+  if (mdio_metadata.contains("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS")) {
+    mdio_metadata["dimension_names"] = mdio_metadata["_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS"];
+    mdio_metadata.erase("_ARRAY_DIMENSIONS");
+  }
+
+  // Also check root level dimension_names (V3 spec)
+  if (zarr_json.contains("dimension_names")) {
+    mdio_metadata["dimension_names"] = zarr_json["dimension_names"];
+  }
+
+  return mdio_metadata;
+}
+
+}  // namespace v3
+}  // namespace zarr
+}  // namespace mdio
+
+#endif  // MDIO_ZARR_ZARR_V3_H_